umarjan11/Medical-qna · Datasets at Hugging Face

input stringlengths 16 191	output stringlengths 46 24.7k
What are the treatments for Sickle Cell Disease ?	Health Maintenance To Prevent Complications Babies with sickle cell disease (SCD) should be referred to a doctor or provider group that has experience taking care of people with this disease. The doctor might be a hematologist (a doctor with special training in blood diseases) or an experienced general pediatrician, internist, or family practitioner. For infants, the first SCD visit should take place before 8 weeks of age. If someone was born in a country that doesnt perform newborn SCD screening, he or she might be diagnosed with SCD later in childhood. These people should also be referred as soon as possible for special SCD care. Examining the person Giving medicines and immunizations Performing tests Educating families about the disease and what to watch out for Preventing Infection In SCD, the spleen doesnt work properly or doesnt work at all. This problem makes people with SCD more likely to get severe infections. Penicillin In children with SCD, taking penicillin two times a day has been shown to reduce the chance of having a severe infection caused by the pneumococcus bacteria. Infants need to take liquid penicillin. Older children can take tablets. Many doctors will stop prescribing penicillin after a child has reached the age of 5. Some prefer to continue this antibiotic throughout life, particularly if a person has hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S0 thalassemia, since people with SCD are still at risk. All people who have had surgical removal of the spleen, called a splenectomy, or a past infection with pneumococcus should keep taking penicillin throughout life. Immunizations People with SCD should receive all recommended childhood vaccines. They should also receive additional vaccines to prevent other infections. Pneumococcus. Even though all children routinely receive the vaccine against pneumococcus (PCV13), children with SCD should also receive a second kind of vaccine against pneumococcus (PPSV23). This second vaccine is given after 24 months of age and again 5 years later. Adults with SCD who have not received any pneumococcal vaccine should get a dose of the PCV13 vaccine. They should later receive the PPSV23 if they have not already received it or it has been more than 5 years since they did. A person should follow these guidelines even if he or she is still taking penicillin. Influenza. All people with SCD should receive an influenza shot every year at the start of flu season. This should begin at 6 months of age. Only the inactivated vaccine, which comes as a shot, should be used in people with SCD. Meningococcus. A child with SCD should receive this vaccine (Menactra or Menveo) at 2, 4, 6, and 1215 months of age. The child should receive a booster vaccine 3 years after this series of shots, then every 5 years after that. Screening Tests and Evaluations Height, Weight, Blood Pressure, and Oxygen Saturation Doctors will monitor height and weight to be sure that a child is growing properly and that a person with SCD is maintaining a healthy weight. Doctors will also track a persons blood pressure. When a person with SCD has high blood pressure, it needs to be treated promptly because it can increase the risk of stroke. Oxygen saturation testing provides information about how much oxygen the blood is carrying. Blood and Urine Testing People with SCD need to have frequent lab tests. Blood tests help to establish a persons baseline for problems like anemia. Blood testing also helps to show whether a person has organ damage, so that it can be treated early. Urine testing can help to detect early kidney problems or infections. Transcranial Doppler (TCD) Ultrasound Screening Children who have hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S0 thalassemia and are between the ages of 2 and 16 should have TCD testing once a year. This study can find out whether a child is at higher risk for stroke. When the test is abnormal, regular blood transfusions can decrease the chances of having a stroke. The child is awake during the TCD exam. The test does not hurt at all. The TCD machine uses sound waves to measure blood flow like the ultrasound machine used to examine pregnant women. Eye Examinations An eye doctor, or ophthalmologist, should examine a persons eyes every 12 years from the age of 10 onwards. These exams can detect if there are SCD-related problems of the eye. Regular exams can help doctors find and treat problems early to prevent loss of vision. A person should see his or her doctor right away for any sudden change in vision. Pulmonary Hypertension Doctors have different approaches to screening for pulmonary hypertension. This is because studies have not given clear information as to when and how a person should receive the screening. People with SCD and their caretakers should discuss with their doctor whether screening makes sense for them. Cognitive Screening People with sickle cell disease can develop cognitive (thinking) problems that may be hard to notice early in life. Sometimes these problems are caused by silent strokes that can only be seen with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. People with SCD should tell their doctors or nurses if they have thinking problems, such as difficulties learning in school, slowed decision making, or trouble organizing their thoughts. People can be referred for cognitive testing. This testing can identify areas in which a person could use extra help. Children with SCD who have thinking problems may qualify for an Individualized Education Program, or IEP. An IEP is a plan that helps students to reach their educational goals. Adults may be able to enroll in vocational rehabilitation programs that can help them with job training. Education and Guidance Doctors and other providers will talk with people who have SCD and their caretakers about complications and also review information at every visit. Because there are a lot of things to discuss, new topics are often introduced as a child or adult reaches an age when that subject is important to know about. Doctors and nurses know that there is a lot of information to learn, and they dont expect people to know everything after one discussion. People with SCD and their families should not be afraid to ask questions. Topics that are usually covered include: Hours that medical staff are available and contact information to use when people with SCD or caretakers have questions A plan for what to do and where to get care if a person has a fever, pain, or other signs of SCD complications that need immediate attention How SCD is inherited and the risk of having a child with SCD The importance of regular medical visits, screening tests, and evaluations How to recognize and manage pain How to palpate (feel) a childs spleen. Because of the risk of splenic sequestration crisis, caretakers should learn how to palpate a childs spleen. They should try to feel for the spleen daily and more frequently when the child is ill. If they feel that the spleen is bigger than usual, they should call the care provider. Transitioning Care When children with SCD become adolescents or young adults, they often need to transition from a pediatric care team to an adult care team. This period has been shown to be associated with increased hospital admissions and medical problems. There seem to be many reasons for this. Some of the increased risk is directly related to the disease. As people with SCD get older, they often develop more organ damage and more disabilities. The shift in care usually occurs at the same time that adolescents are undergoing many changes in their emotional, social, and academic lives. The transition to more independent self-management may be difficult, and following treatment plans may become less likely. When compared with pediatrics, there are often fewer adult SCD programs available in a given region. This makes it more difficult for a person with SCD to find appropriate doctors, particularly those with whom they feel comfortable. To improve use of regular medical care by people with SCD and to reduce age-related complications, many SCD teams have developed special programs that the make transition easier. Such programs should involve the pediatric and the adult care teams. They should also start early and continue over several years. Managing Some Complications of SCD Acute Pain Each person with SCD should have a home treatment regimen that is best suited to their needs. The providers on the SCD team usually help a person develop a written, tailored care plan. If possible, the person with SCD should carry this plan with them when they go to the emergency room. When an acute crisis is just starting, most doctors will advise the person to drink lots of fluids and to take a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) pain medication, such as ibuprofen. When a person has kidney problems, acetaminophen is often preferred. If pain persists, many people will find that they need a stronger medicine. Combining additional interventions, such as massage, relaxation methods, or a heating pad, may also help. If a person with SCD cannot control the pain at home, he or she should go to an SCD day hospital/outpatient unit or an emergency room to receive additional, stronger medicines and intravenous (IV) fluids. Some people may be able to return home once their pain is under better control. In this case, the doctor may prescribe additional pain medicines for a short course of therapy. People often need to be admitted to the hospital to fully control an acute pain crisis. When taken daily, hydroxyurea has been found to decrease the number and severity of pain episodes. Chronic Pain Sometimes chronic pain results from a complication, such as a leg ulcer or aseptic necrosis of the hip. In this case, doctors try to treat the complication causing the pain. While chronic pain is common in adults with SCD, the cause is often poorly understood. Taking pain medicines daily may help to decrease the pain. Some examples of these medicines include: NSAID drugs, such as ibuprofen Duloxetine Gabapentin Amitriptyline Strong pain medicines, such as opiates Other approaches, such as massage, heat, or acupuncture may be helpful in some cases. Chronic pain often comes with feelings of depression and anxiety. Supportive counseling and, sometimes, antidepressant medicines may help. (See coping and emotional issues.) Severe Anemia People should see their doctors or go to a hospital right away if they develop anemia symptoms from a splenic sequestration crisis or an aplastic crisis. These conditions can be life-threatening, and the person will need careful monitoring and treatment in the hospital. A person also usually needs a blood transfusion. People with SCD and symptoms of severe anemia from other causes should also see a doctor right away. Infections Fever is a medical emergency in SCD. All caretakers of infants and children with SCD should take their child to their doctor or go to a hospital right away when their child has a fever. Adults with SCD should also seek care for fever or other signs of infection. All children and adults who have SCD and a fever (over 38.50 C or 101.30 F) must be seen by a doctor and treated with antibiotics right away. Some people will need to be hospitalized, while others may receive care and follow-up as an outpatient. Acute Chest Syndrome People with SCD and symptoms of acute chest syndrome should see their doctor or go to a hospital right away. They will need to be admitted to the hospital where they should receive antibiotics and close monitoring. They may need oxygen therapy and a blood transfusion. When taken daily, the medicine hydroxyurea has been found to decrease the number and severity of acute chest events. Clinical Stroke People with SCD who have symptoms of stroke should be brought to the hospital right away by an ambulance. If a person is having symptoms of stroke, someone should call 9-1-1. Symptoms of stroke may include: Weakness of an arm or leg on one side of the body Trouble speaking, walking, or understanding Loss of balance Severe headache If imaging studies reveal that the person has had an acute stroke, he or she may need an exchange transfusion. This procedure involves slowly removing an amount of the persons blood and replacing it with blood from a donor who does not have SCD or sickle cell trait. Afterward, the person may need to receive monthly transfusions or other treatments to help to prevent another stroke. Silent Stroke and Cognitive Problems Children and adults with SCD and cognitive problems may be able to get useful help based upon the results of their testing. For instance, children may qualify for an IEP. Adults may be able to enroll in vocational, or job, training programs. Priapism Sometimes, a person may be able to relieve priapism by: Emptying the bladder by urinating Taking medicine Increasing fluid intake Doing light exercise If a person has an episode that lasts for 4 hours or more, he should go to the hospital to see a hematologist and urologist. Pregnancy Pregnant women with SCD are at greater risk for problems. They should always see an obstetrician, or OB, who has experience with SCD and high-risk pregnancies and deliveries. The obstetrician should work with a hematologist or primary medical doctor who is well informed about SCD and its complications. Pregnant women with SCD need more frequent medical visits so that their doctors can follow them closely. The doctor may prescribe certain vitamins and will be careful to prescribe pain medicines that are safe for the baby. A pregnant woman with SCD may need to have one or more blood transfusions during her pregnancy to treat complications, such as worsening anemia or an increased number of pain or acute chest syndrome events. Hydroxyurea What Is Hydroxyurea? Hydroxyurea is an oral medicine that has been shown to reduce or prevent several SCD complications. This medicine was studied in patients with SCD because it was known to increase the amount of fetal hemoglobin (hemoglobin F) in the blood. Increased hemoglobin F provides some protection against the effects of hemoglobin S. Hydroxyurea was later found to have several other benefits for a person with SCD, such as decreasing inflammation. Use in adults. Many studies of adults with hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S thalassemia showed that hydroxyurea reduced the number of episodes of pain crises and acute chest syndrome. It also improved anemia and decreased the need for transfusions and hospital admissions. Use in children. Studies in children with severe hemoglobin SS or S thalassemia showed that hydroxyurea reduced the number of vaso-occlusive crises and hospitalizations. A study of very young children (between the ages of 9 and 18 months) with hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S thalassemia also showed that hydroxyurea decreased the number of episodes of pain and dactylitis. Who Should Use Hydroxyurea? Since hydroxyurea can decrease several complications of SCD, most experts recommend that children and adults with hemoglobin SS or S0 thalassemia who have frequent painful episodes, recurrent chest crises, or severe anemia take hydroxyurea daily. Some experts offer hydroxyurea to all infants over 9 months of age and young children with hemoglobin SS or S0 thalassemia, even if they do not have severe clinical problems, to prevent or reduce the chance of complications. There is no information about how safe or effective hydroxyurea is in children under 9 months of age. Some experts will prescribe hydroxyurea to people with other types of SCD who have severe, recurrent pain. There is little information available about how effective hydroxyurea is for these types of SCD. In all situations, people with SCD should discuss with their doctors whether or not hydroxyurea is an appropriate medication for them. Pregnant women should not use hydroxyurea. How Is Hydroxyurea Taken? To work properly, hydroxyurea should be taken by mouth daily at the prescribed dose. When a person does not take it regularly, it will not work as well, or it wont work at all. A person with SCD who is taking hydroxyurea needs careful monitoring. This is particularly true in the early weeks of taking the medicine. Monitoring includes regular blood testing and dose adjustments. What Are the Risks of Hydroxyurea? Hydroxyurea can cause the bloods white cell count or platelet count to drop. In rare cases, it can worsen anemia. These side effects usually go away quickly if a person stops taking the medication. When a person restarts it, a doctor usually prescribes a lower dose. Other short-term side effects are less common. It is still unclear whether hydroxyurea can cause problems later in life in people with SCD who take it for many years. Studies so far suggest that it does not put people at a higher risk of cancer and does not affect growth in children. But further studies are needed. Red Blood Cell Transfusions Doctors may use acute and chronic red blood cell transfusions to treat and prevent certain SCD complications. The red blood cells in a transfusion have normal hemoglobin in them. A transfusion helps to raise the number of red blood cells and provides normal red blood cells that are more flexible than red blood cells with sickle hemoglobin. These cells live longer in the circulation. Red blood cell transfusions decrease vaso-occlusion (blockage in the blood vessel) and improve oxygen delivery to the tissues and organs. Acute Transfusion in SCD Doctors use blood transfusions in SCD for complications that cause severe anemia. They may also use them when a person has an acute stroke, in many cases of acute chest crises, and in multi-organ failure. A person with SCD usually receives blood transfusions before surgery to prevent SCD-related complications afterwards. Chronic Transfusion Doctors recommend regular or ongoing blood transfusions for people who have had an acute stroke, since transfusions decrease the chances of having another stroke. Doctors also recommend chronic blood transfusions for children who have abnormal TCD ultrasound results because transfusions can reduce the chance of having a first stroke. Some doctors use this approach to treat complications that do not improve with hydroxyurea. They may also use transfusions in people who have too many side effects from hydroxyurea. What Are the Risks of Transfusion Therapy? Possible complications include: Hemolysis Iron overload, particularly in people receiving chronic transfusions (can severely impair heart and lung function) Infection Alloimmunization (can make it hard to find a matching unit of blood for a future transfusion) All blood banks and hospital personnel have adopted practices to reduce the risk of transfusion problems. People with SCD who receive transfusions should be monitored for and immunized against hepatitis. They should also receive regular screenings for iron overload. If a person has iron overload, the doctor will give chelation therapy, a medicine to reduce the amount of iron in the body and the problems that iron overload causes. Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation At the present time, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the only cure for SCD. People with SCD and their families should ask their doctor about this procedure. What Are Stem Cells? Stem cells are special cells that can divide over and over again. After they divide, these cells can go on to become blood red cells, white cells, or platelets. A person with SCD has stem cells that make red blood cells that can sickle. People without SCD have stem cells that make red cells that usually wont sickle. What Stem Cells Are Used in HSCT? In HSCT, stem cells are taken from the bone marrow or blood of a person who does not have sickle cell disease (the donor). The donor, however, may have sickle cell trait. The donor is often the persons sister or brother. This is because the safest and most successful transplants use stem cells that are matched for special proteins called HLA antigens. Since these antigens are inherited from parents, a sister or brother is the most likely person to have the same antigens as the person with SCD. What Happens During HSCT? First, stem cells are taken from the donor. After this, the person with SCD (the recipient) is treated with drugs that destroy or reduce his or her own bone marrow stem cells. The donor stem cells are then injected into the persons vein. The injected cells will make a home in the recipients bone marrow, gradually replacing the recipients cells. The new stem cells will make red cells that do not sickle. Which People Receive HSCT? At the present time, most SCD transplants are performed in children who have had complications such as strokes, acute chest crises, and recurring pain crises. These transplants usually use a matched donor. Because only about 1 in 10 children with SCD has a matched donor without SCD in their families, the number of people with SCD who get transplants is low. HSCT is more risky in adults, and that is why most transplants are done in children. There are several medical centers that are researching new SCD HSCT techniques in children and adults who dont have a matched donor in the family or are older than most recipients. Hopefully, more people with SCD will be able to receive a transplant in the future, using these new methods. What Are the Risks? HSCT is successful in about 85 percent of children when the donor is related and HLA matched. Even with this high success rate, HSCT still has risks. Complications can include severe infections, seizures, and other clinical problems. About 5 percent of people have died. Sometimes transplanted cells attack the recipients organs (graft versus host disease). Medicines are given to prevent many of the complications, but they still can happen.
What are the treatments for Overweight and Obesity ?	Successful weight-loss treatments include setting goals and making lifestyle changes, such as eating fewer calories and being physically active. Medicines and weight-loss surgery also are options for some people if lifestyle changes aren't enough. Set Realistic Goals Setting realistic weight-loss goals is an important first step to losing weight. For Adults Try to lose 5 to 10 percent of your current weight over 6 months. This will lower your risk for coronary heart disease (CHD) and other conditions. The best way to lose weight is slowly. A weight loss of 1 to 2 pounds a week is do-able, safe, and will help you keep off the weight. It also will give you the time to make new, healthy lifestyle changes. If you've lost 10 percent of your body weight, have kept it off for 6 months, and are still overweight or obese, you may want to consider further weight loss. For Children and Teens If your child is overweight or at risk for overweight or obesity, the goal is to maintain his or her current weight and to focus on eating healthy and being physically active. This should be part of a family effort to make lifestyle changes. If your child is overweight or obese and has a health condition related to overweight or obesity, your doctor may refer you to a pediatric obesity treatment center. Lifestyle Changes Lifestyle changes can help you and your family achieve long-term weight-loss success. Example of lifestyle changes include: Focusing on balancing energy IN (calories from food and drinks) with energy OUT (physical activity) Following a healthy eating plan Learning how to adopt healthy lifestyle habits Over time, these changes will become part of your everyday life. Calories Cutting back on calories (energy IN) will help you lose weight. To lose 1 to 2pounds a week, adults should cut back their calorie intake by 500 to 1,000calories a day. In general, having 1,000 to 1,200 calories a day will help most women lose weight safely. In general, having 1,200 to 1,600 calories a day will help most men lose weight safely. This calorie range also is suitable for women who weigh 165pounds or more or who exercise routinely. These calorie levels are a guide and may need to be adjusted. If you eat 1,600calories a day but don't lose weight, then you may want to cut back to 1,200calories. If you're hungry on either diet, then you may want to add 100 to 200calories a day. Very low-calorie diets with fewer than 800 calories a day shouldn't be used unless your doctor is monitoring you. For overweight children and teens, it's important to slow the rate of weight gain. However, reduced-calorie diets aren't advised unless you talk with a health care provider. Healthy Eating Plan A healthy eating plan gives your body the nutrients it needs every day. It has enough calories for good health, but not so many that you gain weight. A healthy eating plan is low in saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium (salt), and added sugar. Following a healthy eating plan will lower your risk for heart disease and other conditions. Healthy foods include: Fat-free and low-fat dairy products, such as low-fat yogurt, cheese, and milk. Protein foods, such as lean meat, fish, poultry without skin, beans, and peas. Whole-grain foods, such as whole-wheat bread, oatmeal, and brown rice. Other grain foods include pasta, cereal, bagels, bread, tortillas, couscous, and crackers. Fruits, which can be fresh, canned, frozen, or dried. Vegetables, which can be fresh, canned (without salt), frozen, or dried. Canola and olive oils, and soft margarines made from these oils, are heart healthy. However, you should use them in small amounts because they're high in calories. You also can include unsalted nuts, like walnuts and almonds, in your diet as long as you limit the amount you eat (nuts also are high in calories). The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's "Aim for a Healthy Weight" patient booklet provides more information about following a healthy eating plan. Foods to limit. Foods that are high in saturated and trans fats and cholesterol raise blood cholesterol levels and also might be high in calories. Fats and cholesterol raise your risk for heart disease, so they should be limited. Saturated fat is found mainly in: Fatty cuts of meat, such as ground beef, sausage, and processed meats (for example, bologna, hot dogs, and deli meats) Poultry with the skin High-fat dairy products like whole-milk cheeses, whole milk, cream, butter, and ice cream Lard, coconut, and palm oils, which are found in many processed foods Trans fat is found mainly in: Foods with partially hydrogenated oils, such as many hard margarines and shortening Baked products and snack foods, such as crackers, cookies, doughnuts, and breads Foods fried in hydrogenated shortening, such as french fries and chicken Cholesterol mainly is found in: Egg yolks Organ meats, such as liver Shrimp Whole milk or whole-milk products, such as butter, cream, and cheese Limiting foods and drinks with added sugars, like high-fructose corn syrup, is important. Added sugars will give you extra calories without nutrients like vitamins and minerals. Added sugars are found in many desserts, canned fruit packed in syrup, fruit drinks, and nondiet drinks. Check the list of ingredients on food packages for added sugars like high-fructose corn syrup. Drinks that contain alcohol also will add calories, so it's a good idea to limit your alcohol intake. Portion size. A portion is the amount of food that you choose to eat for a meal or snack. It's different from a serving, which is a measured amount of food and is noted on the Nutrition Facts label on food packages. Anyone who has eaten out lately is likely to notice how big the portions are. In fact, over the past 40 years, portion sizes have grown significantly. These growing portion sizes have changed what we think of as a normal portion. Cutting back on portion size is a good way to eat fewer calories and balance your energy IN. Food weight. Studies have shown that we all tend to eat a constant "weight" of food. Ounce for ounce, our food intake is fairly consistent. Knowing this, you can lose weight if you eat foods that are lower in calories and fat for a given amount of food. For example, replacing a full-fat food product that weighs 2 ounces with a low-fat product that weighs the same helps you cut back on calories. Another helpful practice is to eat foods that contain a lot of water, such as vegetables, fruits, and soups. Physical Activity Being physically active and eating fewer calories will help you lose weight and keep weight off over time. Physical activity also will benefit you in other ways. It will: Lower your risk for heart disease, heart attack, diabetes, and cancers (such as breast, uterine, and colon cancers) Strengthen your heart and help your lungs work better Strengthen your muscles and keep your joints in good condition Slow bone loss Give you more energy Help you relax and better cope with stress Allow you to fall asleep more quickly and sleep more soundly Give you an enjoyable way to share time with friends and family The four main types of physical activity are aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone strengthening, and stretching. You can do physical activity with light, moderate, or vigorous intensity. The level of intensity depends on how hard you have to work to do the activity. People vary in the amount of physical activity they need to control their weight. Many people can maintain their weight by doing 150 to 300 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes to 5 hours) of moderate-intensity activity per week, such as brisk walking. People who want to lose a large amount of weight (more than 5 percent of their body weight) may need to do more than 300 minutes of moderate-intensity activity per week. This also may be true for people who want to keep off weight that they've lost. You don't have to do the activity all at once. You can break it up into short periods of at least 10 minutes each. If you have a heart problem or chronic disease, such as heart disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure, talk with your doctor about what types of physical activity are safe for you. You also should talk with your doctor about safe physical activities if you have symptoms such as chest pain or dizziness. Children should get at least 60 minutes or more of physical activity every day. Most physical activity should be moderate-intensity aerobic activity. Activity should vary and be a good fit for the child's age and physical development. Many people lead inactive lives and might not be motivated to do more physical activity. When starting a physical activity program, some people may need help and supervision to avoid injury. If you're obese, or if you haven't been active in the past, start physical activity slowly and build up the intensity a little at a time. When starting out, one way to be active is to do more everyday activities, such as taking the stairs instead of the elevator and doing household chores and yard work. The next step is to start walking, biking, or swimming at a slow pace, and then build up the amount of time you exercise or the intensity level of the activity. To lose weight and gain better health, it's important to get moderate-intensity physical activity. Choose activities that you enjoy and that fit into your daily life. A daily, brisk walk is an easy way to be more active and improve your health. Use a pedometer to count your daily steps and keep track of how much you're walking. Try to increase the number of steps you take each day. Other examples of moderate-intensity physical activity include dancing, gardening, and water aerobics. For greater health benefits, try to step up your level of activity or the length of time you're active. For example, start walking for 10 to 15 minutes three times a week, and then build up to brisk walking for 60 minutes, 5 days a week. For more information about physical activity, go to the Department of Health and Human Services "2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans" and the Health Topics Physical Activity and Your Heart article. Behavioral Changes Changing your behaviors or habits related to food and physical activity is important for losing weight. The first step is to understand which habits lead you to overeat or have an inactive lifestyle. The next step is to change these habits. Below are some simple tips to help you adopt healthier habits. Change your surroundings. You might be more likely to overeat when watching TV, when treats are available at work, or when you're with a certain friend. You also might find it hard to motivate yourself to be physically active. However, you can change these habits. Instead of watching TV, dance to music in your living room or go for a walk. Leave the office break room right after you get a cup of coffee. Bring a change of clothes to work. Head straight to an exercise class on the way home from work. Put a note on your calendar to remind yourself to take a walk or go to your exercise class. Keep a record. A record of your food intake and the amount of physical activity that you do each day will help inspire you. You also can keep track of your weight. For example, when the record shows that you've been meeting your physical activity goals, you'll want to keep it up. A record also is an easy way to track how you're doing, especially if you're working with a registered dietitian or nutritionist. Seek support. Ask for help or encouragement from your friends, family, and health care provider. You can get support in person, through e-mail, or by talking on the phone. You also can join a support group. Reward success. Reward your success for meeting your weight-loss goals or other achievements with something you would like to do, not with food. Choose rewards that you'll enjoy, such as a movie, music CD, an afternoon off from work, a massage, or personal time. Weight-Loss Medicines Weight-loss medicines approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) might be an option for some people. If you're not successful at losing 1 pound a week after 6months of using lifestyle changes, medicines may help. You should only use medicines as part of a program that includes diet, physical activity, and behavioral changes. Weight-loss medicines might be suitable for adults who are obese (a BMI of 30 or greater). People who have BMIs of 27 or greater, and who are at risk for heart disease and other health conditions, also may benefit from weight-loss medicines. Sibutramine (Meridia) As of October 2010, the weight-loss medicine sibutramine (Meridia) was taken off the market in the United States. Research showed that the medicine may raise the risk of heart attack and stroke. Orlistat (Xenical and Alli) Orlistat (Xenical) causes a weight loss between 5 and 10 pounds, although some people lose more weight. Most of the weight loss occurs within the first 6 months of taking the medicine. People taking Xenical need regular checkups with their doctors, especially during the first year of taking the medicine. During checkups, your doctor will check your weight, blood pressure, and pulse and may recommend other tests. He or she also will talk with you about any medicine side effects and answer your questions. The FDA also has approved Alli, an over-the-counter (OTC) weight-loss aid for adults. Alli is the lower dose form of orlistat. Alli is meant to be used along with a reduced-calorie, low-fat diet and physical activity. In studies, most people taking Alli lost 5 to 10pounds over 6 months. Both Xenical and Alli reduce the absorption of fats, fat calories, and vitamins A, D, E, and K to promote weight loss. Both medicines also can cause mild side effects, such as oily and loose stools. Although rare, some reports of liver disease have occurred with the use of orlistat. More research is needed to find out whether the medicine plays a role in causing liver disease. Talk with your doctor if youre considering using Xenical or Alli to lose weight. He or she can discuss the risks and benefits with you. You also should talk with your doctor before starting orlistat if youre taking blood-thinning medicines or being treated for diabetes or thyroid disease. Also, ask your doctor whether you should take a multivitamin due to the possible loss of some vitamins. Lorcaserin Hydrochloride (Belviq) and Qsymia In July 2012, the FDA approved two new medicines for chronic (ongoing) weight management. Lorcaserin hydrochloride (Belviq) and Qsymia are approved for adults who have a BMI of 30 or greater. (Qsymia is a combination of two FDA-approved medicines: phentermine and topiramate.) These medicines also are approved for adults with a BMI of 27 or greater who have at least one weight-related condition, such as high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, or high blood cholesterol. Both medicines are meant to be used along with a reduced-calorie diet and physical activity. Other Medicines Some prescription medicines are used for weight loss, but aren't FDA-approved for treating obesity. They include: Medicines to treat depression. Some medicines for depression cause an initial weight loss and then a regain of weight while taking the medicine. Medicines to treat seizures. Two medicines used for seizures, topiramate and zonisamide, have been shown to cause weight loss. These medicines are being studied to see whether they will be useful in treating obesity. Medicines to treat diabetes. Metformin may cause small amounts of weight loss in people who have obesity and diabetes. It's not known how this medicine causes weight loss, but it has been shown to reduce hunger and food intake. Over-the-Counter Products Some OTC products claim to promote weight loss. The FDA doesn't regulate these products because they're considered dietary supplements, not medicines. However, many of these products have serious side effects and generally aren't recommended. Some of these OTC products include: Ephedra (also called ma huang). Ephedra comes from plants and has been sold as a dietary supplement. The active ingredient in the plant is called ephedrine. Ephedra can cause short-term weight loss, but it also has serious side effects. It causes high blood pressure and stresses the heart. In 2004, the FDA banned the sale of dietary supplements containing ephedra in the United States. Chromium. This is a mineral that's sold as a dietary supplement to reduce body fat. While studies haven't found any weight-loss benefit from chromium, there are few serious side effects from taking it. Diuretics and herbal laxatives. These products cause you to lose water weight, not fat. They also can lower your body's potassium levels, which may cause heart and muscle problems. Hoodia. Hoodia is a cactus that's native to Africa. It's sold in pill form as an appetite suppressant. However, no firm evidence shows that hoodia works. No large-scale research has been done on humans to show whether hoodia is effective or safe. Weight-Loss Surgery Weight-loss surgery might be an option for people who have extreme obesity (BMI of 40 or more) when other treatments have failed. Weight-loss surgery also is an option for people who have a BMI of 35 or more and life-threatening conditions, such as: Severe sleep apnea (a condition in which you have one or more pauses in breathing or shallow breaths while you sleep) Obesity-related cardiomyopathy (KAR-de-o-mi-OP-ah-thee; diseases of the heart muscle) Severe type 2 diabetes Types of Weight-Loss Surgery Two common weight-loss surgeries include banded gastroplasty and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. For gastroplasty, a band or staples are used to create a small pouch at the top of your stomach. This surgery limits the amount of food and liquids the stomach can hold. For gastric bypass, a small stomach pouch is created with a bypass around part of the small intestine where most of the calories you eat are absorbed. This surgery limits food intake and reduces the calories your body absorbs. Weight-loss surgery can improve your health and weight. However, the surgery can be risky, depending on your overall health. Gastroplasty has few long-term side effects, but you must limit your food intake dramatically. Gastric bypass has more side effects. They include nausea (feeling sick to your stomach), bloating, diarrhea, and faintness. These side effects are all part of a condition called dumping syndrome. After gastric bypass, you may need multivitamins and minerals to prevent nutrient deficiencies. Lifelong medical followup is needed after both surgeries. Your doctor also may recommend a program both before and after surgery to help you with diet, physical activity, and coping skills. If you think you would benefit from weight-loss surgery, talk with your doctor. Ask whether you're a candidate for the surgery and discuss the risks, benefits, and what to expect. Weight-Loss Maintenance Maintaining your weight loss over time can be a challenge. For adults, weight loss is a success if you lose at least 10 percent of your initial weight and you don't regain more than 6 or 7 pounds in 2 years. You also must keep a lower waist circumference (at least 2 inches lower than your waist circumference before you lost weight). After 6 months of keeping off the weight, you can think about losing more if: You've already lost 5 to 10 percent of your body weight You're still overweight or obese The key to losing more weight or maintaining your weight loss is to continue with lifestyle changes. Adopt these changes as a new way of life. If you want to lose more weight, you may need to eat fewer calories and increase your activity level. For example, if you eat 1,600 calories a day but don't lose weight, you may want to cut back to 1,200 calories. It's also important to make physical activity part of your normal daily routine.
What are the treatments for Asthma ?	Asthma is a long-term disease that has no cure. The goal of asthma treatment is to control the disease. Good asthma control will: Prevent chronic and troublesome symptoms, such as coughing and shortness of breath Reduce your need for quick-relief medicines (see below) Help you maintain good lung function Let you maintain your normal activity level and sleep through the night Prevent asthma attacks that could result in an emergency room visit or hospital stay To control asthma, partner with your doctor to manage your asthma or your child's asthma. Children aged 10 or olderand younger children who are ableshould take an active role in their asthma care. Taking an active role to control your asthma involves: Working with your doctor to treat other conditions that can interfere with asthma management. Avoiding things that worsen your asthma (asthma triggers). However, one trigger you should not avoid is physical activity. Physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle. Talk with your doctor about medicines that can help you stay active. Working with your doctor and other health care providers to create and follow an asthma action plan. An asthma action plan gives guidance on taking your medicines properly, avoiding asthma triggers (except physical activity), tracking your level of asthma control, responding to worsening symptoms, and seeking emergency care when needed. Asthma is treated with two types of medicines: long-term control and quick-relief medicines. Long-term control medicines help reduce airway inflammation and prevent asthma symptoms. Quick-relief, or "rescue," medicines relieve asthma symptoms that may flare up. Your initial treatment will depend on the severity of your asthma. Followup asthma treatment will depend on how well your asthma action plan is controlling your symptoms and preventing asthma attacks. Your level of asthma control can vary over time and with changes in your home, school, or work environments. These changes can alter how often you're exposed to the factors that can worsen your asthma. Your doctor may need to increase your medicine if your asthma doesn't stay under control. On the other hand, if your asthma is well controlled for several months, your doctor may decrease your medicine. These adjustments to your medicine will help you maintain the best control possible with the least amount of medicine necessary. Asthma treatment for certain groups of peoplesuch as children, pregnant women, or those for whom exercise brings on asthma symptomswill be adjusted to meet their special needs. Follow an Asthma Action Plan You can work with your doctor to create a personal asthma action plan. The plan will describe your daily treatments, such as which medicines to take and when to take them. The plan also will explain when to call your doctor or go to the emergency room. If your child has asthma, all of the people who care for him or her should know about the child's asthma action plan. This includes babysitters and workers at daycare centers, schools, and camps. These caretakers can help your child follow his or her action plan. Go to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's (NHLBI's) "Asthma Action Plan" for a sample plan. Avoid Things That Can Worsen Your Asthma Many common things (called asthma triggers) can set off or worsen your asthma symptoms. Once you know what these things are, you can take steps to control many of them. (For more information about asthma triggers, go to "What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Asthma?") For example, exposure to pollens or air pollution might make your asthma worse. If so, try to limit time outdoors when the levels of these substances in the outdoor air are high. If animal fur triggers your asthma symptoms, keep pets with fur out of your home or bedroom. One possible asthma trigger you shouldnt avoid is physical activity. Physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle. Talk with your doctor about medicines that can help you stay active. The NHLBI offers many useful tips for controlling asthma triggers. For more information, go to page 2 of NHLBI's "Asthma Action Plan." If your asthma symptoms are clearly related to allergens, and you can't avoid exposure to those allergens, your doctor may advise you to get allergy shots. You may need to see a specialist if you're thinking about getting allergy shots. These shots can lessen or prevent your asthma symptoms, but they can't cure your asthma. Several health conditions can make asthma harder to manage. These conditions include runny nose, sinus infections, reflux disease, psychological stress, and sleep apnea. Your doctor will treat these conditions as well. Medicines Your doctor will consider many things when deciding which asthma medicines are best for you. He or she will check to see how well a medicine works for you. Then, he or she will adjust the dose or medicine as needed. Asthma medicines can be taken in pill form, but most are taken using a device called an inhaler. An inhaler allows the medicine to go directly to your lungs. Not all inhalers are used the same way. Ask your doctor or another health care provider to show you the right way to use your inhaler. Review the way you use your inhaler at every medical visit. Long-Term Control Medicines Most people who have asthma need to take long-term control medicines daily to help prevent symptoms. The most effective long-term medicines reduce airway inflammation, which helps prevent symptoms from starting. These medicines don't give you quick relief from symptoms. Inhaled corticosteroids. Inhaled corticosteroids are the preferred medicine for long-term control of asthma. They're the most effective option for long-term relief of the inflammation and swelling that makes your airways sensitive to certain inhaled substances. Reducing inflammation helps prevent the chain reaction that causes asthma symptoms. Most people who take these medicines daily find they greatly reduce the severity of symptoms and how often they occur. Inhaled corticosteroids generally are safe when taken as prescribed. These medicines are different from the illegal anabolic steroids taken by some athletes. Inhaled corticosteroids aren't habit-forming, even if you take them every day for many years. Like many other medicines, though, inhaled corticosteroids can have side effects. Most doctors agree that the benefits of taking inhaled corticosteroids and preventing asthma attacks far outweigh the risk of side effects. One common side effect from inhaled corticosteroids is a mouth infection called thrush. You might be able to use a spacer or holding chamber on your inhaler to avoid thrush. These devices attach to your inhaler. They help prevent the medicine from landing in your mouth or on the back of your throat. Check with your doctor to see whether a spacer or holding chamber should be used with the inhaler you have. Also, work with your health care team if you have any questions about how to use a spacer or holding chamber. Rinsing your mouth out with water after taking inhaled corticosteroids also can lower your risk for thrush. If you have severe asthma, you may have to take corticosteroid pills or liquid for short periods to get your asthma under control. If taken for long periods, these medicines raise your risk for cataracts and osteoporosis (OS-te-o-po-RO-sis). A cataract is the clouding of the lens in your eye. Osteoporosis is a disorder that makes your bones weak and more likely to break. Your doctor may have you add another long-term asthma control medicine so he or she can lower your dose of corticosteroids. Or, your doctor may suggest you take calcium and vitamin D pills to protect your bones. Other long-term control medicines. Other long-term control medicines include: Cromolyn. This medicine is taken using a device called a nebulizer. As you breathe in, the nebulizer sends a fine mist of medicine to your lungs. Cromolyn helps prevent airway inflammation. Omalizumab (anti-IgE). This medicine is given as a shot (injection) one or two times a month. It helps prevent your body from reacting to asthma triggers, such as pollen and dust mites. Anti-IgE might be used if other asthma medicines have not worked well. A rare, but possibly life-threatening allergic reaction called anaphylaxis might occur when the Omalizumab injection is given. If you take this medication, work with your doctor to make sure you understand the signs and symptoms of anaphylaxis and what actions you should take. Inhaled long-acting beta2-agonists. These medicines open the airways. They might be added to inhaled corticosteroids to improve asthma control. Inhaled long-acting beta2-agonists should never be used on their own for long-term asthma control. They must used with inhaled corticosteroids. Leukotriene modifiers. These medicines are taken by mouth. They help block the chain reaction that increases inflammation in your airways. Theophylline. This medicine is taken by mouth. Theophylline helps open the airways. If your doctor prescribes a long-term control medicine, take it every day to control your asthma. Your asthma symptoms will likely return or get worse if you stop taking your medicine. Long-term control medicines can have side effects. Talk with your doctor about these side effects and ways to reduce or avoid them. With some medicines, like theophylline, your doctor will check the level of medicine in your blood. This helps ensure that youre getting enough medicine to relieve your asthma symptoms, but not so much that it causes dangerous side effects. Quick-Relief Medicines All people who have asthma need quick-relief medicines to help relieve asthma symptoms that may flare up. Inhaled short-acting beta2-agonists are the first choice for quick relief. These medicines act quickly to relax tight muscles around your airways when you're having a flareup. This allows the airways to open up so air can flow through them. You should take your quick-relief medicine when you first notice asthma symptoms. If you use this medicine more than 2 days a week, talk with your doctor about your asthma control. You may need to make changes to your asthma action plan. Carry your quick-relief inhaler with you at all times in case you need it. If your child has asthma, make sure that anyone caring for him or her has the child's quick-relief medicines, including staff at the child's school. They should understand when and how to use these medicines and when to seek medical care for your child. You shouldn't use quick-relief medicines in place of prescribed long-term control medicines. Quick-relief medicines don't reduce inflammation. Track Your Asthma To track your asthma, keep records of your symptoms, check your peak flow number using a peak flow meter, and get regular asthma checkups. Record Your Symptoms You can record your asthma symptoms in a diary to see how well your treatments are controlling your asthma. Asthma is well controlled if: You have symptoms no more than 2 days a week, and these symptoms don't wake you from sleep more than 1 or 2 nights a month. You can do all your normal activities. You take quick-relief medicines no more than 2 days a week. You have no more than one asthma attack a year that requires you to take corticosteroids by mouth. Your peak flow doesn't drop below 80 percent of your personal best number. If your asthma isn't well controlled, contact your doctor. He or she may need to change your asthma action plan. Use a Peak Flow Meter This small, hand-held device shows how well air moves out of your lungs. You blow into the device and it gives you a score, or peak flow number. Your score shows how well your lungs are working at the time of the test. Your doctor will tell you how and when to use your peak flow meter. He or she also will teach you how to take your medicines based on your score. Your doctor and other health care providers may ask you to use your peak flow meter each morning and keep a record of your results. You may find it very useful to record peak flow scores for a couple of weeks before each medical visit and take the results with you. When you're first diagnosed with asthma, it's important to find your "personal best" peak flow number. To do this, you record your score each day for a 2- to 3-week period when your asthma is well-controlled. The highest number you get during that time is your personal best. You can compare this number to future numbers to make sure your asthma is controlled. Your peak flow meter can help warn you of an asthma attack, even before you notice symptoms. If your score shows that your breathing is getting worse, you should take your quick-relief medicines the way your asthma action plan directs. Then you can use the peak flow meter to check how well the medicine worked. Get Asthma Checkups When you first begin treatment, you'll see your doctor about every 2 to 6 weeks. Once your asthma is controlled, your doctor may want to see you from once a month to twice a year. During these checkups, your doctor may ask whether you've had an asthma attack since the last visit or any changes in symptoms or peak flow measurements. He or she also may ask about your daily activities. This information will help your doctor assess your level of asthma control. Your doctor also may ask whether you have any problems or concerns with taking your medicines or following your asthma action plan. Based on your answers to these questions, your doctor may change the dose of your medicine or give you a new medicine. If your control is very good, you might be able to take less medicine. The goal is to use the least amount of medicine needed to control your asthma. Emergency Care Most people who have asthma, including many children, can safely manage their symptoms by following their asthma action plans. However, you might need medical attention at times. Call your doctor for advice if: Your medicines don't relieve an asthma attack. Your peak flow is less than half of your personal best peak flow number. Call 911 for emergency care if: You have trouble walking and talking because you're out of breath. You have blue lips or fingernails. At the hospital, you'll be closely watched and given oxygen and more medicines, as well as medicines at higher doses than you take at home. Such treatment can save your life. Asthma Treatment for Special Groups The treatments described above generally apply to all people who have asthma. However, some aspects of treatment differ for people in certain age groups and those who have special needs. Children It's hard to diagnose asthma in children younger than 5 years. Thus, it's hard to know whether young children who wheeze or have other asthma symptoms will benefit from long-term control medicines. (Quick-relief medicines tend to relieve wheezing in young children whether they have asthma or not.) Doctors will treat infants and young children who have asthma symptoms with long-term control medicines if, after assessing a child, they feel that the symptoms are persistent and likely to continue after 6 years of age. (For more information, go to "How Is Asthma Diagnosed?") Inhaled corticosteroids are the preferred treatment for young children. Montelukast and cromolyn are other options. Treatment might be given for a trial period of 1month to 6 weeks. Treatment usually is stopped if benefits aren't seen during that time and the doctor and parents are confident the medicine was used properly. Inhaled corticosteroids can possibly slow the growth of children of all ages. Slowed growth usually is apparent in the first several months of treatment, is generally small, and doesn't get worse over time. Poorly controlled asthma also may reduce a child's growth rate. Many experts think the benefits of inhaled corticosteroids for children who need them to control their asthma far outweigh the risk of slowed growth. Older Adults Doctors may need to adjust asthma treatment for older adults who take certain other medicines, such as beta blockers, aspirin and other pain relievers, and anti-inflammatory medicines. These medicines can prevent asthma medicines from working well and may worsen asthma symptoms. Be sure to tell your doctor about all of the medicines you take, including over-the-counter medicines. Older adults may develop weak bones from using inhaled corticosteroids, especially at high doses. Talk with your doctor about taking calcium and vitamin D pills, as well as other ways to help keep your bones strong. Pregnant Women Pregnant women who have asthma need to control the disease to ensure a good supply of oxygen to their babies. Poor asthma control increases the risk of preeclampsia, a condition in which a pregnant woman develops high blood pressure and protein in the urine. Poor asthma control also increases the risk that a baby will be born early and have a low birth weight. Studies show that it's safer to take asthma medicines while pregnant than to risk having an asthma attack. Talk with your doctor if you have asthma and are pregnant or planning a pregnancy. Your level of asthma control may get better or it may get worse while you're pregnant. Your health care team will check your asthma control often and adjust your treatment as needed. People Whose Asthma Symptoms Occur With Physical Activity Physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle. Adults need physical activity to maintain good health. Children need it for growth and development. In some people, however, physical activity can trigger asthma symptoms. If this happens to you or your child, talk with your doctor about the best ways to control asthma so you can stay active. The following medicines may help prevent asthma symptoms caused by physical activity: Short-acting beta2-agonists (quick-relief medicine) taken shortly before physical activity can last 2 to 3 hours and prevent exercise-related symptoms in most people who take them. Long-acting beta2-agonists can be protective for up to 12 hours. However, with daily use, they'll no longer give up to 12 hours of protection. Also, frequent use of these medicines for physical activity might be a sign that asthma is poorly controlled. Leukotriene modifiers. These pills are taken several hours before physical activity. They can help relieve asthma symptoms brought on by physical activity. Long-term control medicines. Frequent or severe symptoms due to physical activity may suggest poorly controlled asthma and the need to either start or increase long-term control medicines that reduce inflammation. This will help prevent exercise-related symptoms. Easing into physical activity with a warmup period may be helpful. You also may want to wear a mask or scarf over your mouth when exercising in cold weather. If you use your asthma medicines as your doctor directs, you should be able to take part in any physical activity or sport you choose. People Having Surgery Asthma may add to the risk of having problems during and after surgery. For instance, having a tube put into your throat may cause an asthma attack. Tell your surgeon about your asthma when you first talk with him or her. The surgeon can take steps to lower your risk, such as giving you asthma medicines before or during surgery.
What are the treatments for Heart Valve Disease ?	Currently, no medicines can cure heart valve disease. However, lifestyle changes and medicines often can treat symptoms successfully and delay problems for many years. Eventually, though, you may need surgery to repair or replace a faulty heart valve. The goals of treating heart valve disease might include: Medicines Repairing or replacing faulty valves Lifestyle changes to treat other related heart conditions Medicines In addition to heart-healthy lifestyle changes, your doctor may prescribe medicines to: Lower high blood pressure or high blood cholesterol. Prevent arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats). Thin the blood and prevent clots (if you have a man-made replacement valve). Doctors also prescribe these medicines for mitral stenosis or other valve defects that raise the risk of blood clots. Treat coronary heart disease. Medicines for coronary heart disease can reduce your hearts workload and relieve symptoms. Treatheart failure. Heart failure medicines widen blood vessels and rid the body of excess fluid. Repairing or Replacing Heart Valves Your doctor may recommend repairing or replacing your heart valve(s), even if your heart valve disease isnt causing symptoms. Repairing or replacing a valve can prevent lasting damage to your heart and sudden death. The decision to repair or replace heart valves depends on many factors, including: The severity of your valve disease Whether you need heart surgery for other conditions, such as bypass surgery to treat coronary heart disease. Bypass surgery and valve surgery can be performed at the sametime. Your age and general health When possible, heart valve repair is preferred over heart valve replacement. Valve repair preserves the strength and function of the heart muscle. People who have valve repair also have a lower risk of infective endocarditis after the surgery, and they dont need to take blood-thinning medicines for the rest of their lives. However, heart valve repair surgery is harder to do than valve replacement. Also, not all valves can be repaired. Mitral valves often can be repaired. Aortic and pulmonary valves often have to be replaced. Repairing Heart Valves Heart surgeons can repair heart valves by: Adding tissue to patch holes or tears or to increase the support at the base of the valve Removing or reshaping tissue so the valve can close tighter Separating fused valve flaps Sometimes cardiologists repair heart valves using cardiac catheterization. Although catheter procedures are less invasive than surgery, they may not work as well for some patients. Work with your doctor to decide whether repair is appropriate. If so, your doctor can advise you on the best procedure. Heart valves that cannot open fully (stenosis) can be repaired with surgery or with a less invasive catheter procedure called balloon valvuloplasty. This procedure also is called balloonvalvotomy. During the procedure, a catheter (thin tube) with a balloon at its tip is threaded through a blood vessel to the faulty valve in your heart. The balloon is inflated to help widen the opening of the valve. Your doctor then deflates the balloon and removes both it and the tube. Youre awake during the procedure, which usually requires an overnight stay in a hospital. Balloon valvuloplasty relieves many symptoms of heart valve disease, but may not cure it. The condition can worsen over time. You still may need medicines to treat symptoms or surgery to repair or replace the faulty valve. Balloon valvuloplasty has a shorter recovery time than surgery. The procedure may work as well as surgery for some patients who have mitral valve stenosis. For these people, balloon valvuloplasty often is preferred over surgical repair or replacement. Balloon valvuloplasty doesnt work as well as surgery for adults who have aortic valve stenosis. Doctors often use balloon valvuloplasty to repair valve stenosis in infants and children. Replacing Heart Valves Sometimes heart valves cant be repaired and must be replaced. This surgery involves removing the faulty valve and replacing it with a man-made or biological valve. Biological valves are made from pig, cow, or human heart tissue and may have man-made parts as well. These valves are specially treated, so you wont need medicines to stop your body from rejecting the valve. Man-made valves last longer than biological valves and usually dont have to be replaced. Biological valves usually have to be replaced after about 10 years, although newer ones may last 15years or longer. Unlike biological valves, however, man-made valves require you to take blood-thinning medicines for the rest of your life. These medicines prevent blood clots from forming on the valve. Blood clots can cause a heart attack or stroke. Man-made valves also raise your risk of infective endocarditis. You and your doctor will decide together whether you should have a man-made or biological replacement valve. If youre a woman of childbearing age or if youre athletic, you may prefer a biological valve so you dont have to take blood-thinning medicines. If youre elderly, you also may prefer a biological valve, as it will likely last for the rest of your life. Ross Procedure Doctors also can treat faulty aortic valves with the Ross procedure. During this surgery, your doctor removes your faulty aortic valve and replaces it with your pulmonary valve. Your pulmonary valve is then replaced with a pulmonary valve from a deceased humandonor. This is more involved surgery than typical valve replacement, and it has a greater risk of complications. The Ross procedure may be especially useful for children because the surgically replaced valves continue to grow with the child. Also, lifelong treatment with blood-thinning medicines isnt required. But in some patients, one or both valves fail to work well within a few years of the surgery. Researchers continue to study the use of this procedure. Other Approaches for Repairing and Replacing Heart Valves Some forms of heart valve repair and replacement surgery are less invasive than traditional surgery. These procedures use smaller incisions (cuts) to reach the heart valves. Hospital stays for these newer types of surgery usually are 3 to 5 days, compared with a 5-day stay for traditional heart valve surgery. New surgeries tend to cause less pain and have a lower risk of infection. Recovery time also tends to be shorter2to 4weeks versus 6to 8weeks for traditional surgery. Transcatheter Valve Therapy Interventional cardiologists perform procedures that involve threading clips or other devices to repair faulty heart valves using a catheter (tube) inserted through a large blood vessel. The clips or devices are used to reshape the valves and stop the backflow of blood. People who receive these clips recover more easily than people who have surgery. However, the clips may not treat backflow as well as surgery. Doctors also may use a catheter to replace faulty aortic valves. This procedure is called transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR). For this procedure, the catheter usually is inserted into an artery in the groin (upper thigh) and threaded to the heart. A deflated balloon with a folded replacement valve around it is at the end of the catheter. Once the replacement valve is placed properly, the balloon is used to expand the new valve so it fits securely within the old valve. The balloon is then deflated, and the balloon and catheter are removed. A replacement valve also can be inserted in an existing replacement valve that is failing. This is called a valve-in-valve procedure. Lifestyle Changes to Treat Other Related Heart To help treat heart conditions related to heart valve disease, your doctor may advise you to make heart-healthy lifestyle changes, such as: Heart-healthy eating Maintaining a healthy weight Managing stress Physical activity Quitting smoking Heart-Healthy Eating Your doctor may recommend heart-healthy eating, which should include: Fat-free or low-fat dairy products, such as skim milk Fish high in omega-3 fatty acids, such as salmon, tuna, and trout, about twice a week Fruits, such as apples, bananas, oranges, pears, and prunes Legumes, such as kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and lima beans Vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and carrots Whole grains, such as oatmeal, brown rice, and corn tortillas When following a heart-healthy diet, you should avoid eating: A lot of red meat Palm and coconut oils Sugary foods and beverages Two nutrients in your diet make blood cholesterol levels rise: Saturated fatfound mostly in foods that come from animals Trans fat (trans fatty acids)found in foods made with hydrogenated oils and fats, such as stick margarine; baked goods, such as cookies, cakes, and pies; crackers; frostings; and coffee creamers. Some trans fats also occur naturally in animal fats and meats. Saturated fat raises your blood cholesterol more than anything else in your diet. When you follow a heart-healthy eating plan, only 5percent to 6percent of your daily calories should come from saturated fat. Food labels list the amounts of saturated fat. To help you stay on track, here are some examples: AvocadosNot all fats are bad. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats actually help lower blood cholesterol levels. Some sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are: Corn, sunflower, and soybean oils Nuts and seeds, such as walnuts Olive, canola, peanut, safflower, and sesame oils Peanut butter Salmon and trout Tofu Sodium You should try to limit the amount of sodium that you eat. This means choosing and preparing foods that are lower in salt and sodium. Try to use low-sodium and no added salt foods and seasonings at the table or while cooking. Food labels tell you what you need to know about choosing foods that are lower in sodium. Try to eat no more than 2,300milligrams of sodium a day. If you have high blood pressure, you may need to restrict your sodium intake even more. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension Your doctor may recommend the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan if you have high blood pressure. The DASH eating plan focuses on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that are heart healthy and low in fat, cholesterol, and sodium and salt. The DASH eating plan is a good heart-healthy eating plan, even for those who dont have high blood pressure. Read more about DASH. Alcohol Try to limit alcohol intake. Too much alcohol can raise your blood pressure and triglyceride levels, a type of fat found in the blood. Alcohol also adds extra calories, which may cause weightgain. Men should have no more than two drinks containing alcohol a day. Women should have no more than one drink containing alcohol a day. One drink is: 12 ounces of beer 5 ounces of wine 1 ounces of liquor Maintaining a Healthy Weight Maintaining a healthy weight is important for overall health and can lower your risk for heart valve disease. Aim for a Healthy Weight by following a heart-healthy eating plan and keeping physically active. Knowing your body mass index (BMI) helps you find out if youre a healthy weight in relation to your height and gives an estimate of your total body fat. To figure out your BMI, check out the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutes online BMI calculator or talk to your doctor. A BMI: Below 18.5 is a sign that you are underweight. Between 18.5 and 24.9 is in the normal range. Between 25.0 and 29.9 is considered overweight. Of 30.0 or higher is considered obese. A general goal to aim for is a BMI of less than 25. Your doctor or health care provider can help you set an appropriate BMI goal. Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, youre at a higher risk for heart disease and type2 diabetes. This risk may be higher with a waist size that is greater than 35 inches for women or greater than 40 inches for men. To learn how to measure your waist, visit Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk. If youre overweight or obese, try to lose weight. A loss of just 3 percent to 5 percent of your current weight can lower your triglycerides, blood glucose, and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Greater amounts of weight loss can improve blood pressure readings, lower LDL cholesterol, and increase HDL cholesterol. Managing Stress Learning how to manage stress, relax, and cope with problems can improve your emotional and physical health. Consider healthy stress-reducing activities, such as: A stress management program Meditation Physical activity Relaxation therapy Talking things out with friends or family Physical Activity Regular physical activity can lower many heart valve disease risk factors. Everyone should try to participate in moderate-intensity aerobic exercise at least 2hours and 30minutes per week or vigorous aerobic exercise for 1hour and 15minutes per week. Aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking, is any exercise in which your heart beats faster and you use more oxygen than usual. The more active you are, the more you will benefit. Participate in aerobic exercise for at least 10minutes at a time spread throughout the week. Talk with your doctor before you start a new exercise plan. Ask your doctor how much and what kinds of physical activity are safe for you. Read more about physical activity at: Physical Activity and Your Heart U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Quitting Smoking If you smoke or use tobacco, quit. Smoking can damage and tighten blood vessels and raise your risk for atherosclerosis and other health problems. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. If you have trouble quitting smoking on your own, consider joining a support group. Many hospitals, workplaces, and community groups offer classes to help people quit smoking. For more information about how to quit smoking, visit the Smoking and Your Heart Health Topic.
What are the symptoms of Ehrlichiosis ?	Symptoms In the United States, the term “ehrlichiosis” may be broadly applied to several different infections. Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii are transmitted by the lonestar tick in the southeastern and southcentral United States. In addition, a third Ehrlichia species provisionally called Ehrlichia muris-like (EML) has been identified in a small number of patients residing in or traveling to Minnesota and Wisconsin; a tick vector for the EML organism has not yet been established. The symptoms caused by infection with these Ehrlichia species usually develop 1-2 weeks after being bitten by an infected tick. The tick bite is usually painless, and about half of the people who develop ehrlichiosis may not even remember being bitten by a tick. The following is a list of symptoms commonly seen with this disease, however, it is important to note that the combination of symptoms varies greatly from person to person. - Fever - Headache - Chills - Malaise - Muscle pain - Nausea / Vomiting / Diarrhea - Confusion - Conjunctival injection (red eyes) - Rash (in up to 60% of children, less than 30% of adults) Ehrlichiosis is a serious illness that can be fatal if not treated correctly, even in previously healthy people. Severe clinical presentations may include difficulty breathing, or bleeding disorders. The estimated case fatality rate (i.e. the proportion of persons who die as a result of their infection) is 1.8%. Patients who are treated early may recover quickly on outpatient medication, while those who experience a more severe course may require intravenous antibiotics, prolonged hospitalization or intensive care. Rash Skin rash is not considered a common feature of ehrlichiosis, and should not be used to rule in or rule out an infection. Ehrlichia chaffeensis infection can cause a rash in up to 60% of children, but is reported in fewer than 30% of adults. Rash is not commonly reported in patients infected with Ehrlichia ewingii or the Ehrlichia muris-like organism. The rash associated with Ehrlichia chaffeensis infection may range from maculopapular to petechial in nature, and is usually not pruritic (itchy). The rash usually spares the face, but in some cases may spread to the palms and soles. A type of rash called erythroderma may develop in some patients. Erythroderma is a type of rash that resembles a sunburn and consists of widespread reddening of the skin that may peel after several days. Some patients may develop a rash that resembles the rash of Rocky Mountain spotted fever making these two diseases difficult to differentiate on the basis of clinical signs alone. Immune-compromised Individuals The severity of ehrlichiosis may depend in part on the immune status of the patient. Persons with compromised immunity caused by immunosuppressive therapies (e.g., corticosteroids , cancer chemotherapy, or longterm immunosuppressive therapy following organ transplant), HIV infection, or splenectomy appear to develop more severe disease, and may also have higher case-fatality rates (i.e. the proportion of patients that die from infection.) Blood Transfusion and Organ Transplant Risks Associated with Ehrlichia species Because Ehrlichia organisms infect the white blood cells and circulate in the blood stream, these pathogens may pose a risk to be transmitted through blood transfusions. Ehrlichia chaffeensis has been shown to survive for more than a week in refrigerated blood. Several instances of suspected E. chaffeensis transmission through solid organ transplant have been investigated, although to date no cases have been confirmed that can be attributed to this route of transmission. Patients who develop ehrlichiosis within a month of receiving a blood transfusion or solid organ transplant should be reported to state health officials for prompt investigation. Use of leukoreduced blood products may theoretically decrease the risk of transfusion-associated transmission of these pathogens. However, the filtration process does not remove all leukocytes or bacteria not associated with leukocytes from leukoreduced blood; therefore, this process may not eliminate the risk completely. For more in-depth information about signs and symptoms of ehrlichiosis, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Diagnosis The diagnosis of ehrlichiosis must be made based on clinical signs and symptoms, and can later be confirmed using specialized confirmatory laboratory tests. Treatment should never be delayed pending the receipt of laboratory test results, or be withheld on the basis of an initial negative laboratory result. Physician Diagnosis There are several aspects of ehrlichiosis that make it challenging for healthcare providers to diagnose and treat. The symptoms vary from patient to patient and can be difficult to distinguish from other diseases. Treatment is more likely to be effective if started early in the course of disease. Diagnostic tests based on the detection of antibodies will frequently be negative in the first 7-10 days of illness. For this reason, healthcare providers must use their judgment to treat patients based on clinical suspicion alone. Healthcare providers may find important information in the patient’s history and physical examination that may aid clinical suspicion. Information such as recent tick bites, exposure to areas where ticks are likely to be found, or history of recent travel to areas where ehrlichiosis is endemic can be helpful in making the diagnosis. The healthcare provider should also look at routine blood tests, such as a complete blood cell count or a chemistry panel. Clues such as a low platelet count (thrombocytopenia), low white blood cell count (leukopenia), or elevated liver enzyme levels are helpful predictors of ehrlichiosis, but may not be present in all patients depending on the course of the disease. After a suspect diagnosis is made on clinical suspicion and treatment has begun, specialized laboratory testing should be used to confirm the diagnosis of ehrlichiosis. Laboratory Detection During the acute phase of illness, a sample of whole blood can be tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to determine if a patient has ehrlichiosis. This method is most sensitive in the first week of illness, and quickly decreases in sensitivity following the administration of appropriate antibiotics. Although a positive PCR result is helpful, a negative result does not completely rule out the diagnosis. During the first week of illness a microscopic examination of blood smears (known as a peripheral blood smear) may reveal morulae (microcolonies of ehrlichiae) in the cytoplasm of white blood cells in up to 20% of patients. The type of blood cell in which morulae are observed may provide insight into the infecting species: E. chaffeensis most commonly infects monocytes, whereas E. ewingii more commonly infect granulocytes. However, the observance of morulae in a particular cell type cannot conclusively identify the infecting species. Culture isolation of Ehrlichia is only available at specialized laboratories; routine hospital blood cultures cannot detect Ehrlichia. When a person develops ehrlichiosis, their immune system produces antibodies to the Ehrlichia, with detectable antibody titers usually observed by 7-10 days after illness onset. It is important to note that antibodies are not detectable in the first week of illness in 85% of patients, and a negative test during this time does not rule out ehrlichiosis as a cause of illness. The gold standard serologic test for diagnosis of ehrlichiosis is the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using E. chaffeensis antigen, performed on paired serum samples to demonstrate a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titers. The first sample should be taken as early in the disease as possible, preferably in the first week of symptoms, and the second sample should be taken 2 to 4 weeks later. In most cases of ehrlichiosis, the first IgG IFA titer is typically low, or “negative,” and the second typically shows a significant (four-fold) increase in IgG antibody levels. IgM antibodies usually rise at the same time as IgG near the end of the first week of illness and remain elevated for months or longer. Also, IgM antibodies are less specific than IgG antibodies and more likely to result in a false positive. For these reasons, physicians requesting IgM serologic titers should also request a concurrent IgG titer. Serologic tests based on enzyme immunoassay (EIA) technology are available from some commercial laboratories. However, EIA tests are qualitative rather than quantitative, meaning they only provide a positive/negative result, and are less useful to measure changes in antibody titers between paired specimens. Furthermore, some EIA assays rely on the evaluation of IgM antibody alone, which may have a higher frequency of false positive results. Antibodies to E. chaffeensis may remain elevated for months or longer after the disease has resolved, or may be detected in persons who were previously exposed to antigenically related organisms. Up to 12% of currently healthy people in some areas may have elevated antibody titers due to past exposure to Ehrlichia species or similar organisms. Therefore, if only one sample is tested it can be difficult to interpret, while paired samples taken weeks apart demonstrating a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titer provides the best evidence for a correct diagnosis of ehrlichiosis. For more in-depth information about the diagnosis of ehrlichiosis, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Treatment Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages and should be initiated immediately whenever ehrlichiosis is suspected. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline and other tetracyclines is associated with a higher risk of fatal outcome for some rickettsial infections. Doxycycline is most effective at preventing severe complications from developing if it is started early in the course of disease. Therefore, treatment must be based on clinical suspicion alone and should always begin before laboratory results return. If the patient is treated within the first 5 days of the disease, fever generally subsides within 24-72 hours. In fact, failure to respond to doxycycline suggests that the patient’s condition might not be due to ehrlichiosis. Severely ill patients may require longer periods before their fever resolves. Resistance to doxcycline or relapses in symptoms after the completion of the recommended course have not been documented. Recommended Dosage Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages: - Adults: 100 mg every 12 hours - Children under 45 kg (100 lbs): 2.2 mg/kg body weight given twice a day Patients should be treated for at least 3 days after the fever subsides and until there is evidence of clinical improvement. Standard duration of treatment is 7 to 14 days. Some patients may continue to experience headache, weakness and malaise for weeks after adequate treatment. Treating children The use of doxycycline to treat suspected ehrlichiosis in children is standard practice recommended by both CDC and the AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases. Unlike older generations of tetracyclines, the recommended dose and duration of medication needed to treat ehrlichiosis has not been shown to cause staining of permanent teeth, even when five courses are given before the age of eight. Healthcare providers should use doxycycline as the first-line treatment for suspected ehrlichiosis in patients of all ages. Other Treatments In cases of life threatening allergies to doxycycline and in some pregnant patients for whom the clinical course of ehrlichiosis appears mild, physicians may need to consider alternate antibiotics. Although recommended as a second-line therapeutic alternative to treat Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF), chloramphenicol is not recommended for the treatment of either ehrlichiosis or anaplasmosis, as studies have shown a lack of efficacy. Rifampin appears effective against Ehrlichia in laboratory settings. However, rifampin is not effective in treating RMSF, a disease that may be confused with ehrlichiosis. Healthcare providers should be cautious when exploring treatments other than doxycycline, which is highly effective in treating both. Other antibiotics, including broad spectrum antibiotics are not considered highly effective against ehrlichiosis, and the use of sulfa drugs during acute illness may worsen the severity of infection. Prophylaxis (Preventive Treatment) Antibiotic treatment following a tick bite is not recommended as a means to prevent ehrlichiosis. There is no evidence this practice is effective, and this may simply delay onset of disease. Instead, persons who experience a tick bite should be alert for symptoms suggestive of tickborne illness and consult a physician if fever, rash, or other symptoms of concern develop. For more in-depth information about treatment, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Other Considerations The clinical presentation for ehrlichiosis can resemble other tickborne diseases, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever and anaplasmosis. Similar to ehrlichiosis, these infections respond well to treatment with doxycycline. Healthcare providers should order diagnostic tests for additional agents if the clinical history and geographic association warrant. For more in-depth about other similar tickborne diseases, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm
What are the treatments for Stroke ?	Treatment for a stroke depends on whether it is ischemic or hemorrhagic. Treatment for a transient ischemic attack (TIA) depends on its cause, how much time has passed since symptoms began, and whether you have other medical conditions. Strokes and TIAs are medical emergencies. If you have stroke symptoms, call 911 right away. Do not drive to the hospital or let someone else drive you. Call an ambulance so that medical personnel can begin lifesaving treatment on the way to the emergency room. During a stroke, every minute counts. Once you receive immediate treatment, your doctor will try to treat your stroke risk factors and prevent complications by recommending heart-healthy lifestyle changes. Treating an Ischemic Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attack An ischemic stroke or TIA occurs if an artery that supplies oxygen-rich blood to the brain becomes blocked. Often, blood clots cause the blockages that lead to ischemic strokes and TIAs. Treatment for an ischemic stroke or TIA may include medicines and medical procedures. Medicines If you have a stroke caused by a blood clot, you may be given a clot-dissolving, or clot-busting, medication called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA). A doctor will inject tPA into a vein in your arm. This type of medication must be given within 4hours of symptom onset. Ideally, it should be given as soon as possible. The sooner treatment begins, the better your chances of recovery. Thus, its important to know the signs and symptoms of a stroke and to call 911 right away for emergency care. If you cant have tPA for medical reasons, your doctor may give you antiplatelet medicine that helps stop platelets from clumping together to form blood clots or anticoagulant medicine (blood thinner) that keeps existing blood clots from getting larger. Two common medicines are aspirin and clopidogrel. Medical Procedures If you have carotid artery disease, your doctor may recommend a carotid endarterectomy or carotid arteryangioplasty. Both procedures open blocked carotid arteries. Researchers are testing other treatments for ischemic stroke, such as intra-arterial thrombolysis and mechanical clot removal in cerebral ischemia (MERCI). In intra-arterial thrombolysis, a long flexible tube called a catheter is put into your groin (upper thigh) and threaded to the tiny arteries of the brain. Your doctor can deliver medicine through this catheter to break up a blood clot in the brain. MERCI is a device that can remove blood clots from an artery. During the procedure, a catheter is threaded through a carotid artery to the affected artery in the brain. The device is then used to pull the blood clot out through the catheter. Treating a Hemorrhagic Stroke A hemorrhagic stroke occurs if an artery in the brain leaks blood or ruptures. The first steps in treating a hemorrhagic stroke are to find the cause of bleeding in the brain and then control it. Unlike ischemic strokes, hemorrhagic strokes arent treated with antiplatelet medicines and blood thinners because these medicines can make bleeding worse. If youre taking antiplatelet medicines or blood thinners and have a hemorrhagic stroke, youll be taken off the medicine. If high blood pressure is the cause of bleeding in the brain, your doctor may prescribe medicines to lower your blood pressure. This can help prevent further bleeding. Surgery also may be needed to treat a hemorrhagic stroke. The types of surgery used include aneurysm clipping, coil embolization, and arteriovenous malformation (AVM) repair. Aneurysm Clipping and Coil Embolization If an aneurysm (a balloon-like bulge in an artery) is the cause of a stroke, your doctor may recommend aneurysm clipping or coil embolization. Aneurysm clipping is done to block off the aneurysm from the blood vessels in the brain. This surgery helps prevent further leaking of blood from the aneurysm. It also can help prevent the aneurysm from bursting again.During the procedure, a surgeon will make an incision (cut) in the brain and place a tiny clamp at the base of the aneurysm. Youll be given medicine to make you sleep during the surgery. After the surgery, youll need to stay in the hospitals intensive care unit for a few days. Coil embolization is a less complex procedure for treating an aneurysm. The surgeon will insert a tube called a catheter into an artery in the groin. He or she will thread the tube to the site of the aneurysm.Then, a tiny coil will be pushed through the tube and into the aneurysm. The coil will cause a blood clot to form, which will block blood flow through the aneurysm and prevent it from burstingagain.Coil embolization is done in a hospital. Youll be given medicine to make you sleep during thesurgery. Arteriovenous Malformation Repair If an AVM is the cause of a stroke, your doctor may recommend an AVM repair. (An AVM is a tangle of faulty arteries and veins that can rupture within the brain.) AVM repair helps prevent further bleeding in the brain. Doctors use several methods to repair AVMs. These methods include: Injecting a substance into the blood vessels of the AVM to block blood flow Surgery to remove the AVM Using radiation to shrink the blood vessels of the AVM Treating Stroke Risk Factors After initial treatment for a stroke or TIA, your doctor will treat your risk factors. He or she may recommend heart-healthy lifestyle changes to help control your risk factors. Heart-healthy lifestyle changes may include: heart-healthy eating maintaining a healthy weight managing stress physical activity quitting smoking If lifestyle changes arent enough, you may need medicine to control your risk factors. Heart-Healthy Eating Your doctor may recommend heart-healthy eating, which should include: Fat-free or low-fat dairy products, such as skim milk Fish high in omega-3 fatty acids, such as salmon, tuna, and trout, about twice a week Fruits, such as apples, bananas, oranges, pears, and prunes Legumes, such as kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and lima beans Vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and carrots Whole grains, such as oatmeal, brown rice, and corn tortillas When following a heart-healthy diet, you should avoid eating: A lot of red meat Palm and coconut oils Sugary foods and beverages Two nutrients in your diet make blood cholesterol levels rise: Saturated fatfound mostly in foods that come from animals Trans fat (trans fatty acids)found in foods made with hydrogenated oils and fats, such as stick margarine; baked goods, such as cookies, cakes, and pies; crackers; frostings; and coffee creamers. Some trans fats also occur naturally in animal fats and meats. Saturated fat raises your blood cholesterol more than anything else in your diet. When you follow a heart-healthy eating plan, only 5percent to 6percent of your daily calories should come from saturated fat. Food labels list the amounts of saturated fat. To help you stay on track, here are some examples: 1,200 calories a day 8 grams of saturated fat a day 1,500 calories a day 10 grams of saturated fat a day 1,800 calories a day 12 grams of saturated fat a day 2,000 calories a day 13 grams of saturated fat a day 2,500 calories a day 17 grams of saturated fat a day Not all fats are bad. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats actually help lower blood cholesterol levels. Some sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are: Avocados Corn, sunflower, and soybean oils Nuts and seeds, such as walnuts Olive, canola, peanut, safflower, and sesame oils Peanut butter Salmon and trout Tofu Sodium Try to limit the amount of sodium that you eat. This means choosing and preparing foods that are lower in salt and sodium. Try to use low-sodium and no added salt foods and seasonings at the table or while cooking. Food labels tell you what you need to know about choosing foods that are lower in sodium. Try to eat no more than 2,300 milligrams of sodium a day. If you have high blood pressure, you may need to restrict your sodium intake even more. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension Your doctor may recommend the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan if you have high blood pressure. The DASH eating plan focuses on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that are heart healthy and low in fat, cholesterol, and sodium and salt. The DASH eating plan is a good heart-healthy eating plan, even for those who dont have high blood pressure. Read more about DASH. Alcohol Try to limit alcohol intake. Too much alcohol can raise your blood pressure and triglyceride levels, a type of fat found in the blood. Alcohol also adds extra calories, which may cause weight gain. Men should have no more than two drinks containing alcohol a day. Women should have no more than one drink containing alcohol a day. One drink is: 12 ounces of beer 5 ounces of wine 1 ounces of liquor Maintaining a Healthy Weight Maintaining a healthy weight is important for overall health and can lower your risk for stroke. Aim for a Healthy Weight by following a heart-healthy eating plan and keeping physically active. Knowing your body mass index (BMI) helps you find out if youre a healthy weight in relation to your height and gives an estimate of your total body fat. To figure out your BMI, check out the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutes (NHLBI) online BMI calculator or talk to your doctor. A BMI: Below 18.5 is a sign that you are underweight. Between 18.5 and 24.9 is in the normal range. Between 25.0 and 29.9 is considered overweight. Of 30.0 or higher is considered obese. A general goal to aim for is a BMI of less than 25. Your doctor or health care provider can help you set an appropriate BMI goal. Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, youre at a higher risk for heart disease and type2 diabetes. This risk may be high with a waist size that is greater than 35 inches for women or greater than 40 inches for men. To learn how to measure your waist, visit Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk. If youre overweight or obese, try to lose weight. A loss of just 3 percent to 5 percent of your current weight can lower your triglycerides, blood glucose, and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Greater amounts of weight loss can improve blood pressure readings, lower LDL cholesterol, and increase HDL cholesterol. Managing Stress Learning how to manage stress, relax, and cope with problems can improve your emotional and physical health. Consider healthy stress-reducing activities, such as: A stress management program Meditation Physical activity Relaxation therapy Talking things out with friends or family Physical Activity Regular physical activity can lower many risk factors for stroke. Everyone should try to participate in moderate-intensity aerobic exercise at least 2hours and 30minutes per week or vigorous aerobic exercise for 1hour and 15minutes per week. Aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking, is any exercise in which your heart beats faster and you use more oxygen than usual. The more active you are, the more you will benefit. Participate in aerobic exercise for at least 10minutes at a time spread throughout the week. Talk with your doctor before you start a new exercise plan. Ask your doctor how much and what kinds of physical activity are safe for you. Read more about physical activity at: Physical Activity and Your Heart U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Quitting Smoking If you smoke or use tobacco, quit. Smoking can damage and tighten blood vessels and raise your risk for stroke. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. If you have trouble quitting smoking on your own, consider joining a support group. Many hospitals, workplaces, and community groups offer classes to help people quit smoking. For more information about how to quit smoking, visit Smoking and Your Heart.
What are the symptoms of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) ?	The first symptoms of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) typically begin 2-14 days after the bite of an infected tick. A tick bite is usually painless and about half of the people who develop RMSF do not remember being bitten. The disease frequently begins as a sudden onset of fever and headache and most people visit a healthcare provider during the first few days of symptoms. Because early symptoms may be non-specific, several visits may occur before the diagnosis of RMSF is made and correct treatment begins. The following is a list of symptoms commonly seen with this disease, however, it is important to note that few people with the disease will develop all symptoms, and the number and combination of symptoms varies greatly from person to person. - Fever - Rash (occurs 2-5 days after fever, may be absent in some cases; see below) - Headache - Nausea - Vomiting - Abdominal pain (may mimic appendicitis or other causes of acute abdominal pain) - Muscle pain - Lack of appetite - Conjunctival injection (red eyes) RMSF is a serious illness that can be fatal in the first eight days of symptoms if not treated correctly, even in previously healthy people. The progression of the disease varies greatly. Patients who are treated early may recover quickly on outpatient medication, while those who experience a more severe course may require intravenous antibiotics, prolonged hospitalization or intensive care. Rash While most people with RMSF (90%) have some type of rash during the course of illness, some people do not develop the rash until late in the disease process, after treatment should have already begun. Approximately 10% of RMSF patients never develop a rash. It is important for physicians to consider RMSF if other signs and symptoms support a diagnosis, even if a rash is not present. A classic case of RMSF involves a rash that first appears 2-5 days after the onset of fever as small, flat, pink, non-itchy spots (macules) on the wrists, forearms, and ankles and spreads to include the trunk and sometimes the palms and soles. Often the rash varies from this description and people who fail to develop a rash, or develop an atypical rash, are at increased risk of being misdiagnosed. The red to purple, spotted (petechial) rash of RMSF is usually not seen until the sixth day or later after onset of symptoms and occurs in 35-60% of patients with the infection. This is a sign of progression to severe disease, and every attempt should be made to begin treatment before petechiae develop. Figure 1a and 1b: Examples of an early-stage rash in an RMSF patient. Long-term Health Problems Patients who had a particularly severe infection requiring prolonged hospitalization may have long-term health problems caused by this disease. Rickettsia rickettsii infects the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels. The damage that occurs in the blood vessels results in a disease process called a "vasculitis", and bleeding or clotting in the brain or other vital organs may occur. Loss of fluid from damaged vessels can result in loss of circulation to the extremities and damaged fingers, toes or even limbs may ultimately need to be amputated. Patients who suffer this kind of severe vasculitis in the first two weeks of illness may also be left with permanent long-term health problems such as profound neurological deficits, or damage to internal organs. Those who do not have this kind of vascular damage in the initial stages of the disease typically recover fully within several days to months. Infection in Children Children with RMSF infection may experience nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Children are less likely to report a headache, but more likely to develop an early rash than adults. Other frequently observed signs and symptoms in children with RMSF are abdominal pain, altered mental status, and conjunctival injection. Occasionally, symptoms like cough, sore throat, and diarrhea may be seen, and can lead to misdiagnosis. For more in-depth information about signs and symptoms of RMSF, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Physician Diagnosis There are several aspects of RMSF that make it challenging for healthcare providers to diagnose and treat. The symptoms of RMSF vary from patient to patient and can easily resemble other, more common diseases. Treatment for this disease is most effective at preventing death if started in the first five days of symptoms. Diagnostic tests for this disease, especially tests based on the detection of antibodies, will frequently appear negative in the first 7-10 days of illness. Due to the complexities of this disease and the limitations of currently available diagnostic tests, there is no test available at this time that can provide a conclusive result in time to make important decisions about treatment. For this reason, healthcare providers must use their judgment to treat patients based on clinical suspicion alone. Healthcare providers may find important information in the patient’s history and physical examination that may aid clinical suspicion. Information such as recent tick bites, exposure to high grass and tick-infested areas, contact with dogs, similar illnesses in family members or pets, or history of recent travel to areas of high incidence can be helpful in making the diagnosis. Also, information about the presence of symptoms such as fever and rash may be helpful. The healthcare provider may also look at routine blood tests, such as a complete blood cell count or a chemistry panel. Clues such as a low platelet count (thrombocytopenia), low sodium levels (hyponatremia), or elevated liver enzyme levels are often helpful predictors of RMSF but may not be present in all patients. After a suspect diagnosis is made on clinical suspicion and treatment has begun, specialized laboratory testing should be used to confirm the diagnosis of RMSF. Laboratory Confirmation R. rickettsii infects the endothelial cells that line blood vessels, and does not circulate in large numbers in the blood unless the patient has progressed to a very severe phase of infection. For this reason, blood specimens (whole blood, serum) are not always useful for detection of the organism through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or culture. If the patient has a rash, PCR or immunohistochemical (IHC) staining can be performed on a skin biopsy taken from the rash site. This test can often deliver a rapid result. These tests have good sensitivity (70%) when applied to tissue specimens collected during the acute phase of illness and before antibiotic treatment has been started, but a negative result should not be used to guide treatment decisions. PCR, culture, and IHC can also be applied to autopsy specimens (liver, spleen, kidney, etc) collected after a patient dies. Culture of R. rickettsii is only available at specialized laboratories; routine hospital blood cultures cannot detect R. rickettsii. During RMSF infection, a patient’s immune system develops antibodies to R. rickettsii, with detectable antibody titers usually observed by 7-10 days after illness onset. It is important to note that antibodies are not detectable in the first week of illness in 85% of patients, and a negative test during this time does not rule out RMSF as a cause of illness. The gold standard serologic test for diagnosis of RMSF is the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) with R. rickettsii antigen, performed on two paired serum samples to demonstrate a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titers. The first sample should be taken as early in the disease as possible, preferably in the first week of symptoms, and the second sample should be taken 2 to 4 weeks later. In most RMSF cases, the first IgG IFA titer is typically low or negative, and the second typically shows a significant (fourfold) increase in IgG antibody levels. IgM antibodies usually rise at the same time as IgG near the end of the first week of illness and remain elevated for months or even years. Also, IgM antibodies are less specific than IgG antibodies and more likely to result in a false positive. For these reasons, physicians requesting IgM serologic titers should also request a concurrent IgG titer. Both IgM and IgG levels may remain elevated for months or longer after the disease has resolved, or may be detected in persons who were previously exposed to antigenically related organisms. Up to 10% of currently healthy people in some areas may have elevated antibody titers due to past exposure to R. rickettsii or similar organisms. Therefore, if only one sample is tested it can be difficult to interpret, whereas two paired samples taken weeks apart demonstrating a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titer provide the best evidence for a correct diagnosis of RMSF. For more in-depth information about testing, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Treatment Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages and should be initiated immediately whenever RMSF is suspected. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline is associated with a higher risk of fatal outcome. Treatment is most effective at preventing death if doxycycline is started in the first 5 days of symptoms. Therefore, treatment must be based on clinical suspicion alone and should always begin before laboratory results return or symptoms of severe disease, such as petechiae, develop. If the patient is treated within the first 5 days of the disease, fever generally subsides within 24-72 hours. In fact, failure to respond to doxycycline suggests that the patient’s condition might not be RMSF. Severely ill patients may require longer periods before their fever resolves, especially if they have experienced damage to multiple organ systems. Resistance to doxcycline or relapses in symptoms after the completion of the recommended course of treatment have not been documented. Recommended Dosage Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages: - Adults: 100 mg every 12 hours - Children under 45 kg (100 lbs): 2.2 mg/kg body weight given twice a day Patients should be treated for at least 3 days after the fever subsides and until there is evidence of clinical improvement. Standard duration of treatment is 7-14 days. Treating Children The use of doxycycline to treat suspected RMSF in children is standard practice recommended by both CDC and the AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline increases the risk of patient death. Unlike older tetracyclines, the recommended dose and duration of medication needed to treat RMSF has not been shown to cause staining of permanent teeth, even when five courses are given before the age of eight. Healthcare providers should use doxycycline as the first-line treatment for suspected Rocky Mountain spotted fever in patients of all ages. Other Treatments In cases of life threatening allergies to doxycycline and in some pregnant patients for whom the clinical course of RMSF appears mild, chloramphenicol may be considered as an alternative antibiotic. Oral forumulations of chloramphenicol are not available in the United States, and use of this drug carries the potential for other adverse risks, such as aplastic anemia and Grey baby syndrome. Furthermore, the risk for fatal outcome is elevated in patients who are treated with chloramphenicol compared to those treated with doxycycline. Other antibiotics, including broad spectrum antibiotics are not effective against R. rickettsii, and the use of sulfa drugs may worsen infection. Prophylaxis (Preventive Treatment) Antibiotic treatment following a tick bite is not recommended as a means to prevent RMSF. There is no evidence this practice is effective, and may simply delay onset of disease. Instead, persons who experience a tick bite should be alert for symptoms suggestive of tickborne illness and consult a physician if fever, rash, or other symptoms of concern develop. For more in-depth information about treatment, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Other Considerations The clinical presentation for RMSF can also resemble other tickborne diseases, such as ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis. Similar to RMSF, these infections respond well to treatment with doxycycline. Healthcare providers should order diagnostic tests for additional agents if the clinical history and geographic association warrant. For more in-depth about other similar tickborne diseases, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm
What causes Glomerular Diseases ?	A number of different diseases can result in glomerular disease. It may be the direct result of an infection or a drug toxic to the kidneys, or it may result from a disease that affects the entire body, like diabetes or lupus. Many different kinds of diseases can cause swelling or scarring of the nephron or glomerulus. Sometimes glomerular disease is idiopathic, meaning that it occurs without an apparent associated disease. The categories presented below can overlap: that is, a disease might belong to two or more of the categories. For example, diabetic nephropathy is a form of glomerular disease that can be placed in two categories: systemic diseases, since diabetes itself is a systemic disease, and sclerotic diseases, because the specific damage done to the kidneys is associated with scarring. Autoimmune Diseases When the body's immune system functions properly, it creates protein-like substances called antibodies and immunoglobulins to protect the body against invading organisms. In an autoimmune disease, the immune system creates autoantibodies, which are antibodies or immunoglobulins that attack the body itself. Autoimmune diseases may be systemic and affect many parts of the body, or they may affect only specific organs or regions. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) affects many parts of the body: primarily the skin and joints, but also the kidneys. Because women are more likely to develop SLE than men, some researchers believe that a sex-linked genetic factor may play a part in making a person susceptible, although viral infection has also been implicated as a triggering factor. Lupus nephritis is the name given to the kidney disease caused by SLE, and it occurs when autoantibodies form or are deposited in the glomeruli, causing inflammation. Ultimately, the inflammation may create scars that keep the kidneys from functioning properly. Conventional treatment for lupus nephritis includes a combination of two drugs, cyclophosphamide, a cytotoxic agent that suppresses the immune system, and prednisolone, a corticosteroid used to reduce inflammation. A newer immunosuppressant, mychophenolate mofetil (MMF), has been used instead of cyclophosphamide. Preliminary studies indicate that MMF may be as effective as cyclophosphamide and has milder side effects. Goodpasture's Syndrome involves an autoantibody that specifically targets the kidneys and the lungs. Often, the first indication that patients have the autoantibody is when they cough up blood. But lung damage in Goodpasture's Syndrome is usually superficial compared with progressive and permanent damage to the kidneys. Goodpasture's Syndrome is a rare condition that affects mostly young men but also occurs in women, children, and older adults. Treatments include immunosuppressive drugs and a blood-cleaning therapy called plasmapheresis that removes the autoantibodies. IgA nephropathy is a form of glomerular disease that results when immunoglobulin A (IgA) forms deposits in the glomeruli, where it creates inflammation. IgA nephropathy was not recognized as a cause of glomerular disease until the late 1960s, when sophisticated biopsy techniques were developed that could identify IgA deposits in kidney tissue. The most common symptom of IgA nephropathy is blood in the urine, but it is often a silent disease that may go undetected for many years. The silent nature of the disease makes it difficult to determine how many people are in the early stages of IgA nephropathy, when specific medical tests are the only way to detect it. This disease is estimated to be the most common cause of primary glomerulonephritisthat is, glomerular disease not caused by a systemic disease like lupus or diabetes mellitus. It appears to affect men more than women. Although IgA nephropathy is found in all age groups, young people rarely display signs of kidney failure because the disease usually takes several years to progress to the stage where it causes detectable complications. No treatment is recommended for early or mild cases of IgA nephropathy when the patient has normal blood pressure and less than 1 gram of protein in a 24-hour urine output. When proteinuria exceeds 1 gram/day, treatment is aimed at protecting kidney function by reducing proteinuria and controlling blood pressure. Blood pressure medicinesangiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs)that block a hormone called angiotensin are most effective at achieving those two goals simultaneously. Hereditary NephritisAlport Syndrome The primary indicator of Alport syndrome is a family history of chronic glomerular disease, although it may also involve hearing or vision impairment. This syndrome affects both men and women, but men are more likely to experience chronic kidney disease and sensory loss. Men with Alport syndrome usually first show evidence of renal insufficiency while in their twenties and reach total kidney failure by age 40. Women rarely have significant renal impairment, and hearing loss may be so slight that it can be detected only through testing with special equipment. Usually men can pass the disease only to their daughters. Women can transmit the disease to either their sons or their daughters. Treatment focuses on controlling blood pressure to maintain kidney function. Infection-related Glomerular Disease Glomerular disease sometimes develops rapidly after an infection in other parts of the body. Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) can occur after an episode of strep throat or, in rare cases, impetigo (a skin infection). The Streptococcus bacteria do not attack the kidney directly, but an infection may stimulate the immune system to overproduce antibodies, which are circulated in the blood and finally deposited in the glomeruli, causing damage. PSGN can bring on sudden symptoms of swelling (edema), reduced urine output (oliguria), and blood in the urine (hematuria). Tests will show large amounts of protein in the urine and elevated levels of creatinine and urea nitrogen in the blood, thus indicating reduced kidney function. High blood pressure frequently accompanies reduced kidney function in this disease. PSGN is most common in children between the ages of 3 and 7, although it can strike at any age, and it most often affects boys. It lasts only a brief time and usually allows the kidneys to recover. In a few cases, however, kidney damage may be permanent, requiring dialysis or transplantation to replace renal function. Bacterial endocarditis, infection of the tissues inside the heart, is also associated with subsequent glomerular disease. Researchers are not sure whether the renal lesions that form after a heart infection are caused entirely by the immune response or whether some other disease mechanism contributes to kidney damage. Treating the heart infection is the most effective way of minimizing kidney damage. Endocarditis sometimes produces chronic kidney disease (CKD). HIV, the virus that leads to AIDS, can also cause glomerular disease. Between 5 and 10 percent of people with HIV experience kidney failure, even before developing full-blown AIDS. HIV-associated nephropathy usually begins with heavy proteinuria and progresses rapidly (within a year of detection) to total kidney failure. Researchers are looking for therapies that can slow down or reverse this rapid deterioration of renal function, but some possible solutions involving immunosuppression are risky because of the patients' already compromised immune system. Sclerotic Diseases Glomerulosclerosis is scarring (sclerosis) of the glomeruli. In several sclerotic conditions, a systemic disease like lupus or diabetes is responsible. Glomerulosclerosis is caused by the activation of glomerular cells to produce scar material. This may be stimulated by molecules called growth factors, which may be made by glomerular cells themselves or may be brought to the glomerulus by the circulating blood that enters the glomerular filter. Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of glomerular disease and of total kidney failure in the United States. Kidney disease is one of several problems caused by elevated levels of blood glucose, the central feature of diabetes. In addition to scarring the kidney, elevated glucose levels appear to increase the speed of blood flow into the kidney, putting a strain on the filtering glomeruli and raising blood pressure. Diabetic nephropathy usually takes many years to develop. People with diabetes can slow down damage to their kidneys by controlling their blood glucose through healthy eating with moderate protein intake, physical activity, and medications. People with diabetes should also be careful to keep their blood pressure at a level below 140/90 mm Hg, if possible. Blood pressure medications called ACE inhibitors and ARBs are particularly effective at minimizing kidney damage and are now frequently prescribed to control blood pressure in patients with diabetes and in patients with many forms of kidney disease. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) describes scarring in scattered regions of the kidney, typically limited to one part of the glomerulus and to a minority of glomeruli in the affected region. FSGS may result from a systemic disorder or it may develop as an idiopathic kidney disease, without a known cause. Proteinuria is the most common symptom of FSGS, but, since proteinuria is associated with several other kidney conditions, the doctor cannot diagnose FSGS on the basis of proteinuria alone. Biopsy may confirm the presence of glomerular scarring if the tissue is taken from the affected section of the kidney. But finding the affected section is a matter of chance, especially early in the disease process, when lesions may be scattered. Confirming a diagnosis of FSGS may require repeat kidney biopsies. Arriving at a diagnosis of idiopathic FSGS requires the identification of focal scarring and the elimination of possible systemic causes such as diabetes or an immune response to infection. Since idiopathic FSGS is, by definition, of unknown cause, it is difficult to treat. No universal remedy has been found, and most patients with FSGS progress to total kidney failure over 5 to 20 years. Some patients with an aggressive form of FSGS reach total kidney failure in 2 to 3 years. Treatments involving steroids or other immunosuppressive drugs appear to help some patients by decreasing proteinuria and improving kidney function. But these treatments are beneficial to only a minority of those in whom they are tried, and some patients experience even poorer kidney function as a result. ACE inhibitors and ARBs may also be used in FSGS to decrease proteinuria. Treatment should focus on controlling blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels, factors that may contribute to kidney scarring. Other Glomerular Diseases Membranous nephropathy, also called membranous glomerulopathy, is the second most common cause of the nephrotic syndrome (proteinuria, edema, high cholesterol) in U.S. adults after diabetic nephropathy. Diagnosis of membranous nephropathy requires a kidney biopsy, which reveals unusual deposits of immunoglobulin G and complement C3, substances created by the body's immune system. Fully 75 percent of cases are idiopathic, which means that the cause of the disease is unknown. The remaining 25 percent of cases are the result of other diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus, hepatitis B or C infection, or some forms of cancer. Drug therapies involving penicillamine, gold, or captopril have also been associated with membranous nephropathy. About 20 to 40 percent of patients with membranous nephropathy progress, usually over decades, to total kidney failure, but most patients experience either complete remission or continued symptoms without progressive kidney failure. Doctors disagree about how aggressively to treat this condition, since about 20 percent of patients recover without treatment. ACE inhibitors and ARBs are generally used to reduce proteinuria. Additional medication to control high blood pressure and edema is frequently required. Some patients benefit from steroids, but this treatment does not work for everyone. Additional immunosuppressive medications are helpful for some patients with progressive disease. Minimal change disease (MCD) is the diagnosis given when a patient has the nephrotic syndrome and the kidney biopsy reveals little or no change to the structure of glomeruli or surrounding tissues when examined by a light microscope. Tiny drops of a fatty substance called a lipid may be present, but no scarring has taken place within the kidney. MCD may occur at any age, but it is most common in childhood. A small percentage of patients with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome do not respond to steroid therapy. For these patients, the doctor may recommend a low-sodium diet and prescribe a diuretic to control edema. The doctor may recommend the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce proteinuria. ACE inhibitors and ARBs have also been used to reduce proteinuria in patients with steroid-resistant MCD. These patients may respond to larger doses of steroids, more prolonged use of steroids, or steroids in combination with immunosuppressant drugs, such as chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, or cyclosporine.
What are the treatments for Cardiomyopathy ?	People who have cardiomyopathy but no signs or symptoms may not need treatment. Sometimes, dilated cardiomyopathy that comes on suddenly may go away on its own. For other people who have cardiomyopathy, treatment is needed. Treatment depends on the type of cardiomyopathy you have, the severity of your symptoms and complications, and your age and overall health. Treatments may include: Heart-healthy lifestyle changes Medicines Nonsurgical procedure Surgery and implanted devices The main goals of treating cardiomyopathy include: Controlling signs and symptoms so that you can live as normally as possible Managing any conditions that cause or contribute to the disease Reducing complications and the risk of sudden cardiac arrest Stopping the disease from getting worse Heart-Healthy Lifestyle Changes Your doctor may suggest lifestyle changes to manage a condition thats causing your cardiomyopathy including: Heart-healthy eating Maintaining a healthy weight Managing stress Physical activity Quitting smoking Heart-Healthy Eating Your doctor may recommend heart-healthy eating, which should include: Fat-free or low-fat dairy products, such as fat-free milk Fish high in omega-3 fatty acids, such as salmon, tuna, and trout, about twice a week Fruits, such as apples, bananas, oranges, pears, and prunes Legumes, such as kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and lima beans Vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and carrots Whole grains, such as oatmeal, brown rice, and corn tortillas When following a heart-healthy diet, you should avoid eating: A lot of red meat Palm and coconut oils Sugary foods and beverages Two nutrients in your diet make blood cholesterol levels rise: Saturated fatfound mostly in foods that come from animals Trans fat (trans fatty acids)found in foods made with hydrogenated oils and fats such as stick margarine;baked goods such as, cookies, cakes, and pies, crackers, frostings, and coffee creamers. Some trans fats also occur naturally in animal fats and meats. Saturated fat raises your blood cholesterol more than anything else in your diet. When you follow a heart-healthy eating plan, only 5 percent to 6percent of your daily calories should come from saturated fat. Food labels list the amounts of saturated fat. To help you stay on track, here are some examples: Not all fats are bad. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats actually help lower blood cholesterol levels. Some sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are: Avocados Corn, sunflower, and soybean oils Nuts and seeds, such as walnuts Olive, canola, peanut, safflower, and sesame oils Peanut butter Salmon and trout Tofu Sodium Try to limit the amount of sodium that you eat. This means choosing and preparing foods that are lower in salt and sodium. Try to use low-sodium and no added salt foods and seasonings at the table or while cooking. Food labels tell you what you need to know about choosing foods that are lower in sodium. Try to eat no more than 2,300 milligrams of sodium a day. If you have high blood pressure, you may need to restrict your sodium intake even more. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension Your doctor may recommend the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan if you have high blood pressure. The DASH eating plan focuses on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that are heart healthy and low in fat, cholesterol, and sodium and salt. The DASH eating plan is a good heart-healthy eating plan, even for those who dont have high blood pressure. Read more about DASH. Alcohol Talk to your doctor about how much alcohol you drink. Too much alcohol canraise your blood pressure and triglyceride levels, a type of fat found in the blood. Alcohol also adds extra calories, which may cause weight gain. Your doctor may recommend that you reduce the amount of alcohol you drinkor stop drinking alcohol. Maintaining a Healthy Weight Maintaining a healthy weight is important for overall health and can lower your risk for coronary heart disease. Aim for a Healthy Weight by following a heart-healthy eating plan and keeping physically active. Knowing your body mass index (BMI) helps you find out if youre a healthy weight in relation to your height and gives an estimate of your total body fat. To figure out your BMI, check out the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutes (NHLBI) onlineBMI calculatoror talk to your doctor.A BMI: Below 18.5 is a sign that you are underweight. Between 18.5 and 24.9 is in the normal range. Between 25 and 29.9 is considered overweight. Of 30 or more is considered obese. A general goal to aim for is a BMI of less than 25. Your doctor or health care provider can help you set an appropriate BMI goal. Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, youre at a higher risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes. This risk may be high with a waist size that is greater than 35 inches for women or greater than 40 inches for men. To learn how to measure your waist, visitAssessing Your Weight and Health Risk. If youre overweight or obese, try to lose weight. A loss of just 3 percent to 5 percent of your current weight can lower your triglycerides, blood glucose, and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Greater amounts of weight loss can improve blood pressure readings, lower LDL cholesterol, and increase HDL cholesterol. Managing Stress Research shows that the most commonly reported trigger for a heart attack is an emotionally upsetting eventparticularly one involving anger. Also, some of the ways people cope with stresssuch as drinking, smoking, or overeatingarent healthy. Learning how to manage stress, relax, and cope with problems can improve your emotional and physical health.Consider healthy stress-reducing activities, such as: A stress management program Meditation Physical activity Relaxation therapy Talking things out with friends or family Physical Activity Routine physical activity can lower many risk factors for coronary heart disease, including LDL (bad) cholesterol, high blood pressure, and excess weight. Physical activity also can lower your risk for diabetes and raise your HDL cholesterol level. HDL is the good cholesterol that helps prevent coronary heart disease. Everyone should try to participate in moderate intensity aerobic exercise at least 2hours and 30minutes per week, or vigorous intensity aerobic exercise for 1hour and 15minutes per week. Aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking, is any exercise in which your heart beats fasterand you use more oxygen than usual. The more active you are, the more you will benefit. Participate in aerobic exercise for at least 10 minutes at a time spread throughout the week. Read more about physical activity at: Physical Activity and Your Heart U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines forAmericans Talk with your doctor before you start a new exercise plan. Ask your doctor how much and what kinds of physical activity are safe for you. Quitting Smoking If you smoke, quit. Smoking can raise your risk for coronary heart disease and heart attack and worsen other coronary heart disease risk factors. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit smoking. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. If you have trouble quitting smoking on your own, consider joining a support group. Many hospitals, workplaces, and community groups offer classes to help people quit smoking. Read more about quitting smoking at Smoking and Your Heart. Medicines Many medicines are used to treat cardiomyopathy. Your doctor may prescribe medicines to: Balance electrolytes in your body. Electrolytes are minerals that help maintain fluid levels and acid-base balance in the body. They also help muscle and nerve tissues work properly. Abnormal electrolyte levels may be a sign of dehydration (lack of fluid in your body), heart failure, high blood pressure, or other disorders. Aldosterone blockers are an example of a medicine used to balance electrolytes. Keep your heart beating with a normal rhythm. These medicines, called antiarrhythmics, help prevent arrhythmias. Lower your blood pressure. ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers are examples of medicines that lower blood pressure. Prevent blood clots from forming. Anticoagulants, or blood thinners, are an example of a medicine that prevents blood clots. Blood thinners often are used to prevent blood clots from forming in people who have dilated cardiomyopathy. Reduce inflammation. Corticosteroids are an example of a medicine used to reduce inflammation. Remove excess sodium from your body. Diuretics, or water pills, are an example of medicines that help remove excess sodium from the body, which reduces the amount of fluid in your blood. Slow your heart rate. Beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and digoxin are examples of medicines that slow the heart rate. Beta blockers and calcium channel blockers also are used to lower blood pressure. Take all medicines regularly, as your doctor prescribes. Dont change the amount of your medicine or skip a dose unless your doctor tells you to. Surgery and Implanted Devices Doctors use several types of surgery to treat cardiomyopathy, including septal myectomy, surgically implanted devices, and heart transplant. Septal Myectomy Septal myectomy is open-heart surgery and is used to treat people who have hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and severe symptoms. This surgery generally is used for younger patients and for people whose medicines arent working well. A surgeon removes part of the thickened septum thats bulging into the left ventricle. This improves blood flow through the heart and out to the body. The removed tissue doesnt grow back. If needed, the surgeon also can repair or replace the mitral valve at the same time. Septal myectomy often is successful and allows you to return to a normal life with nosymptoms. Surgically Implanted Devices Surgeons can place several types of devices in the heart to improve function and symptoms, including: Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) device. A CRT device coordinates contractions between the hearts left and right ventricles. Implantable cardioverter defibrillator(ICD). An ICD helps control life-threatening arrhythmias that may lead tosudden cardiac arrest. This small device is implanted in the chest or abdomen and connected to the heart with wires. If an ICD senses a dangerous change in heart rhythm, it will send an electric shock to the heart to restore a normal heartbeat. Left ventricular assist device (LVAD). This device helps the heart pump blood to the body. An LVAD can be used as a long-term therapy or as a short-term treatment for people who are waiting for a heart transplant. Pacemaker. This small device is placed under the skin of your chest or abdomen to help control arrhythmias. The device uses electrical pulses to prompt the heart to beat at a normal rate. Heart Transplant For this surgery, a surgeon replaces a persons diseased heart with a healthy heart from a deceased donor. A heart transplant is a last resort treatment for people who have end-stage heart failure. End-stage means the condition has become so severe that all treatments, other than heart transplant, have failed. For more information about this treatment, go to the Heart Transplant Health Topic. Nonsurgical Procedure Doctors may use a nonsurgical procedure called alcohol septal ablation to treat cardiomyopathy. During this procedure, the doctor injects ethanol (a type of alcohol) through a tube into the small artery that supplies blood to the thickened area of heart muscle. The alcohol kills cells, and the thickened tissue shrinks to a more normal size. This procedure allows blood to flow freely through the ventricle, which improves symptoms.
What are the treatments for Urinary Incontinence in Men ?	Treatment depends on the type of UI. Urgency Incontinence As a first line of therapy for urgency incontinence, a health care professional may recommend the following techniques to treat a mans problem: - behavioral and lifestyle changes - bladder training - pelvic floor exercises - urgency suppression If those treatments are not successful, the following additional measures may help urgency incontinence: - medications - electrical nerve stimulation - bulking agents - surgery A health care professional may recommend other treatments for men with urgency incontinence caused by BPH. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Prostate Enlargement: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia. Behavioral and lifestyle changes. Men with urgency incontinence may be able to reduce leaks by making behavioral and lifestyle changes: - Eating, diet, and nutrition. Men with urgency incontinence can change the amount and type of liquid they drink. A man can try limiting bladder irritantsincluding caffeinated drinks such as tea or coffee and carbonated beveragesto decrease leaks. Men also should limit alcoholic drinks, which can increase urine production. A health care professional can help a man determine how much he should drink based on his health, how active he is, and where he lives. To decrease nighttime trips to the restroom, men may want to stop drinking liquids several hours before bed. - Engaging in physical activity. Although a man may be reluctant to engage in physical activity when he has urgency incontinence, regular exercise is important for good overall health and for preventing and treating UI. - Losing weight. Men who are overweight should talk with a health care professional about strategies for losing weight, which can help improve UI. - Preventing constipation. Gastrointestinal (GI) problems, especially constipation, can make urinary tract health worse and can lead to UI. The opposite is also true: Urinary problems, such as UI, can make GI problems worse. More information about how to prevent constipation through diet and physical activity is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Constipation. To Help Prevent Bladder Problems, Stop Smoking People who smoke should stop. Quitting smoking at any age promotes bladder health and overall health. Smoking increases a persons chance of developing stress incontinence, as it increases coughing. Some people say smoking worsens their bladder irritation. Smoking causes most cases of bladder cancer. People who smoke for many years have a higher risk of bladder cancer than nonsmokers or those who smoke for a short time.2 People who smoke should ask for help so they do not have to try quitting alone. Call 1-800-QUITNOW (1-800-784-8669) for more information. Bladder training. Bladder training is changing urination habits to decrease incidents of UI. The health care professional may suggest a man use the restroom at regular timed intervals, called timed voiding, based on the mans bladder diary. A man can gradually lengthen the time between trips to the restroom to help stretch the bladder so it can hold more urine. Pelvic floor muscle exercises. Pelvic floor muscle, or Kegel, exercises involve strengthening pelvic floor muscles. Strong pelvic floor muscles hold in urine more effectively than weak muscles. A man does not need special equipment for Kegel exercises. The exercises involve tightening and relaxing the muscles that control urine flow. Pelvic floor exercises should not be performed during urination. A health care professional can help a man learn proper technique. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Kegel Exercise Tips. Men also may learn how to perform Kegel exercises properly by using biofeedback. Biofeedback uses special sensors to measure bodily functions, such as muscle contractions that control urination. A video monitor displays the measurements as graphs, and sounds indicate when the man is using the correct muscles. The health care professional uses the information to help the man change abnormal function of the pelvic floor muscles. At home, the man practices to improve muscle function. The man can perform the exercises while lying down, sitting at a desk, or standing up. Success with pelvic floor exercises depends on the cause of UI, its severity, and the mans ability to perform the exercises. Urgency suppression. By using certain techniques, a man can suppress the urge to urinate, called urgency suppression. Urgency suppression is a way for a man to train his bladder to maintain control so he does not have to panic about finding a restroom. Some men use distraction techniques to take their mind off the urge to urinate. Other men find taking long, relaxing breaths and being still can help. Doing pelvic floor exercises also can help suppress the urge to urinate. Medications. Health care professionals may prescribe medications that relax the bladder, decrease bladder spasms, or treat prostate enlargement to treat urgency incontinence in men. - Antimuscarinics. Antimuscarinics can help relax bladder muscles and prevent bladder spasms. These medications include oxybutynin (Oxytrol), tolterodine (Detrol), darifenacin (Enablex), trospium (Sanctura), fesoterodine (Toviaz), and solifenacin (VESIcare). They are available in pill, liquid, and patch form. - Tricyclic antidepressants. Tricyclic antidepressants such as imipramine (Tofranil) can calm nerve signals, decreasing spasms in bladder muscles. - Alpha-blockers. Terazosin (Hytrin), doxazosin (Cardura), tamsulosin (Flomax), alfuzosin (Uroxatral), and silodosin (Rapaflo) are used to treat problems caused by prostate enlargement and bladder outlet obstruction. These medications relax the smooth muscle of the prostate and bladder neck, which lets urine flow normally and prevents abnormal bladder contractions that can lead to urgency incontinence. - 5-alpha reductase inhibitors. Finasteride (Proscar) and dutasteride (Avodart) block the production of the male hormone dihydrotestosterone, which accumulates in the prostate and may cause prostate growth. These medications may help to relieve urgency incontinence problems by shrinking an enlarged prostate. - Beta-3 agonists. Mirabegron (Myrbetriq) is a beta-3 agonist a person takes by mouth to help prevent symptoms of urgency incontinence. Mirabegron suppresses involuntary bladder contractions. - Botox. A health care professional may use onabotulinumtoxinA (Botox), also called botulinum toxin type A, to treat UI in men with neurological conditions such as spinal cord injury or multiple sclerosis. Injecting Botox into the bladder relaxes the bladder, increasing storage capacity and decreasing UI. A health care professional performs the procedure during an office visit. A man receives local anesthesia. The health care professional uses a cystoscope to guide the needle for injecting the Botox. Botox is effective for up to 10 months.3 Electrical nerve stimulation. If behavioral and lifestyle changes and medications do not improve symptoms, a urologist may suggest electrical nerve stimulation as an option to prevent UI, urinary frequencyurination more often than normaland other symptoms. Electrical nerve stimulation involves altering bladder reflexes using pulses of electricity. The two most common types of electrical nerve stimulation are percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation and sacral nerve stimulation.4 - Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation uses electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve, which is located in the ankle, on a weekly basis. The patient receives local anesthesia for the procedure. In an outpatient center, a urologist inserts a battery-operated stimulator beneath the skin near the tibial nerve. Electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve prevents bladder activity by interfering with the pathway between the bladder and the spinal cord or brain. Although researchers consider percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation safe, they continue to study the exact ways that it prevents symptoms and how long the treatment can last. - Sacral nerve stimulation involves implanting a battery-operated stimulator beneath the skin in the lower back near the sacral nerve. The procedure takes place in an outpatient center using local anesthesia. Based on the patients feedback, the health care professional can adjust the amount of stimulation so it works best for that individual. The electrical pulses enter the body for minutes to hours, two or more times a day, either through wires placed on the lower back or just above the pubic areabetween the navel and the pubic hair. Sacral nerve stimulation may increase blood flow to the bladder, strengthen pelvic muscles that help control the bladder, and trigger the release of natural substances that block pain. The patient can turn the stimulator on or off at any time. A patient may consider getting an implanted device that delivers regular impulses to the bladder. A urologist places a wire next to the tailbone and attaches it to a permanent stimulator under the skin. Bulking agents. A urologist injects bulking agents, such as collagen and carbon spheres, near the urinary sphincter to treat incontinence. The bulking agent makes the tissues thicker and helps close the bladder opening. Before the procedure, the health care professional may perform a skin test to make sure the man doesnt have an allergic reaction to the bulking agent. A urologist performs the procedure during an office visit. The man receives local anesthesia. The urologist uses a cystoscopea tubelike instrument used to look inside the urethra and bladderto guide the needle for injection of the bulking agent. Over time, the body may slowly eliminate certain bulking agents, so a man may need to have injections again. Surgery. As a last resort, surgery to treat urgency incontinence in men includes the artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) and the male sling. A health care professional performs the surgery in a hospital with regional or general anesthesia. Most men can leave the hospital the same day, although some may need to stay overnight. - AUS. An AUS is an implanted device that keeps the urethra closed until the man is ready to urinate. The device has three parts: a cuff that fits around the urethra, a small balloon reservoir placed in the abdomen, and a pump placed in the scrotumthe sac that holds the testicles. The cuff contains a liquid that makes it fit tightly around the urethra to prevent urine from leaking. When it is time to urinate, the man squeezes the pump with his fingers to deflate the cuff. The liquid moves to the balloon reservoir and lets urine flow through the urethra. When the bladder is empty, the cuff automatically refills in the next 2 to 5 minutes to keep the urethra tightly closed. - Male sling. A health care professional performs a sling procedure, also called urethral compression procedure, to add support to the urethra, which can sometimes better control urination. Through an incision in the tissue between the scrotum and the rectum, also called the perineum, the health care professional uses a piece of human tissue or mesh to compress the urethra against the pubic bone. The surgeon secures the ends of the tissue or mesh around the pelvic bones. The lifting and compression of the urethra sometimes provides better control over urination. Stress Incontinence Men who have stress incontinence can use the same techniques for treating urgency incontinence. Functional Incontinence Men with functional incontinence may wear protective undergarments if they worry about reaching a restroom in time. These products include adult diapers or pads and are available from drugstores, grocery stores, and medical supply stores. Men who have functional incontinence should talk to a health care professional about its cause and how to prevent or treat functional incontinence. Overflow Incontinence A health care professional treats overflow incontinence caused by a blockage in the urinary tract with surgery to remove the obstruction. Men with overflow incontinence that is not caused by a blockage may need to use a catheter to empty the bladder. A catheter is a thin, flexible tube that is inserted through the urethra into the bladder to drain urine. A health care professional can teach a man how to use a catheter. A man may need to use a catheter once in a while, a few times a day, or all the time. Catheters that are used continuously drain urine from the bladder into a bag that is attached to the mans thigh with a strap. Men using a continuous catheter should watch for symptoms of an infection. Transient Incontinence A health care professional treats transient incontinence by addressing the underlying cause. For example, if a medication is causing increased urine production leading to UI, a health care professional may try lowering the dose or prescribing a different medication. A health care professional may prescribe bacteria-fighting medications called antibiotics to treat UTIs.
What are the symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease ?	Early Signs and Symptoms If a person has sickle cell disease (SCD), it is present at birth. But most infants do not have any problems from the disease until they are about 5 or 6 months of age. Every state in the United States, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territories requires that all newborn babies receive screening for SCD. When a child has SCD, parents are notified before the child has symptoms. Some children with SCD will start to have problems early on, and some later. Early symptoms of SCD may include: Painful swelling of the hands and feet, known as dactylitis Fatigue or fussiness from anemia A yellowish color of the skin, known as jaundice, or whites of the eyes, known as icteris, that occurs when a large number of red cells hemolyze The signs and symptoms of SCD will vary from person to person and can change over time. Most of the signs and symptoms of SCD are related to complications of the disease. Major Complications of Sickle Cell Disease Acute Pain (Sickle Cell or Vaso-occlusive) Crisis Pain episodes (crises) can occur without warning when sickle cells block blood flow and decrease oxygen delivery. People describe this pain as sharp, intense, stabbing, or throbbing. Severe crises can be even more uncomfortable than post-surgical pain or childbirth. Pain can strike almost anywhere in the body and in more than one spot at a time. But the pain often occurs in the Lower back Legs Arms Abdomen Chest A crisis can be brought on by Illness Temperature changes Stress Dehydration (not drinking enough) Being at high altitudes But often a person does not know what triggers, or causes, the crisis. (See acute pain management.) Chronic Pain Many adolescents and adults with SCD suffer from chronic pain. This kind of pain has been hard for people to describe, but it is usually different from crisis pain or the pain that results from organ damage. Chronic pain can be severe and can make life difficult. Its cause is not well understood. (See chronic pain management.) Severe Anemia People with SCD usually have mild to moderate anemia. At times, however, they can have severe anemia. Severe anemia can be life threatening. Severe anemia in an infant or child with SCD may be caused by: Splenic sequestration crisis. The spleen is an organ that is located in the upper left side of the belly. The spleen filters germs in the blood, breaks up blood cells, and makes a kind of white blood cell. A splenic sequestration crisis occurs when red blood cells get stuck in the spleen, making it enlarge quickly. Since the red blood cells are trapped in the spleen, there are fewer cells to circulate in the blood. This causes severe anemia. A big spleen may also cause pain in the left side of the belly. A parent can usuallypalpate or feel the enlarged spleen in the belly of his or her child. A big spleen may also cause pain in the left side of the belly. A parent can usuallypalpate or feel the enlarged spleen in the belly of his or her child. Aplastic crisis. This crisis is usually caused by a parvovirus B19 infection, also called fifth disease or slapped cheek syndrome. Parvovirus B19 is a very common infection, but in SCD it can cause the bone marrow to stop producing new red cells for a while, leading to severe anemia. Splenic sequestration crisis and aplastic crisis most commonly occur in infants and children with SCD. Adults with SCD may also experience episodes of severe anemia, but these usually have other causes. No matter the cause, severe anemia may lead to symptoms that include: Shortness of breath Being very tired Feeling dizzy Having pale skin Babies and infants with severe anemia may feed poorly and seem very sluggish. (See anemia management.) Infections The spleen is important for protection against certain kinds of germs. Sickle cells can damage the spleen and weaken or destroy its function early in life. People with SCD who have damaged spleens are at risk for serious bacterial infections that can be life-threatening. Some of these bacteria include: Pneumococcus Hemophilus influenza type B Meningococcus Salmonella Staphylococcus Chlamydia Mycoplasma pneumoniae Bacteria can cause: Blood infection (septicemia) Lung infection (pneumonia) Infection of the covering of the brain and spinal cord (meningitis) Bone infection (osteomyelitis) (See how to prevent infections and infection management.) Acute Chest Syndrome Sickling in blood vessels of the lungs can deprive a persons lungs of oxygen. When this happens, areas of lung tissue are damaged and cannot exchange oxygen properly. This condition is known as acute chest syndrome. In acute chest syndrome, at least one segment of the lung is damaged. This condition is very serious and should be treated right away at a hospital. Acute chest syndrome often starts a few days after a painful crisis begins. A lung infection may accompany acute chest syndrome. Symptoms may include: Chest pain Fever Shortness of breath Rapid breathing Cough (See acute chest syndrome management.) Brain Complications Clinical Stroke A stroke occurs when blood flow is blocked to a part of the brain. When this happens, brain cells can be damaged or can die. In SCD, a clinical stroke means that a person shows outward signs that something is wrong. The symptoms depend upon what part of the brain is affected. Symptoms of stroke may include: Weakness of an arm or leg on one side of the body Trouble speaking, walking, or understanding Loss of balance Severe headache As many as 24 percent of people with hemoglobin SS and 10 percent of people with hemoglobin SC may suffer a clinical stroke by age 45. In children, clinical stroke occurs most commonly between the ages of 2 and 9, but recent prevention strategies have lowered the risk. (See Transcranial Doppler (TCD) Ultrasound Screening) and Red Blood Cell Transfusions.) When people with SCD show symptoms of stroke, their families or friends should call 9-1-1 right away. (See clinical stroke management.) Silent Stroke and Thinking Problems Brain imaging and tests of thinking (cognitive studies) have shown that children and adults with hemoglobin SS and hemoglobin S0 thalassemia often have signs of silent brain injury, also called silent stroke. Silent brain injury is damage to the brain without showing outward signs of stroke. This injury is common. Silent brain injury can lead to learning problems or trouble making decisions or holding down a job. (See Cognitive Screening and silent stroke management.) Eye Problems Sickle cell disease can injure blood vessels in the eye. The most common site of damage is the retina, where blood vessels can overgrow, get blocked, or bleed. The retina is the light-sensitive layer of tissue that lines the inside of the eye and sends visual messages through the optic nerve to the brain. Detachment of the retina can occur. When the retina detaches, it is lifted or pulled from its normal position. These problems can cause visual impairment or loss. (See Eye Examinations.) Heart Disease People with SCD can have problems with blood vessels in the heart and with heart function. The heart can become enlarged. People can also develop pulmonary hypertension. People with SCD who have received frequent blood transfusions may also have heart damage from iron overload. (See transfusion management.) Pulmonary Hypertension In adolescents and adults, injury to blood vessels in the lungs can make it hard for the heart to pump blood through them. This causes the pressure in lung blood vessels to rise. High pressure in these blood vessels is called pulmonary hypertension. Symptoms may include shortness of breath and fatigue. When this condition is severe, it has been associated with a higher risk of death. (See screening for pulmonary hypertension.) Kidney Problems The kidneys are sensitive to the effects of red blood cell sickling. SCD causes the kidneys to have trouble making the urine as concentrated as it should be. This may lead to a need to urinate often and to have bedwetting or uncontrolled urination during the night (nocturnal enuresis). This often starts in childhood. Other problems may include: Blood in the urine Decreased kidney function Kidney disease Protein loss in the urine Priapism Males with SCD can have unwanted, sometimes prolonged, painful erections. This condition is called priapism. Priapism happens when blood flow out of the erect penis is blocked by sickled cells. If it goes on for a long period of time, priapism can cause permanent damage to the penis and lead to impotence. If priapism lasts for more than 4 hours, emergency medical care should be sought to avoid complications. (See priapism management.) Gallstones When red cells hemolyze, they release hemoglobin. Hemoglobin gets broken down into a substance called bilirubin. Bilirubin can form stones that get stuck in the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a small, sac-shaped organ beneath the liver that helps with digestion. Gallstones are a common problem in SCD. Gallstones may be formed early on but may not produce symptoms for years. When symptoms develop, they may include: Right-sided upper belly pain Nausea Vomiting If problems continue or recur, a person may need surgery to remove the gallbladder. Liver Complications There are a number of ways in which the liver may be injured in SCD. Sickle cell intrahepatic cholestasis is an uncommon, but severe, form of liver damage that occurs when sickled red cells block blood vessels in the liver. This blockage prevents enough oxygen from reaching liver tissue. These episodes are usually sudden and may recur. Children often recover, but some adults may have chronic problems that lead to liver failure. People with SCD who have received frequent blood transfusions may develop liver damage from iron overload. Leg Ulcers Sickle cell ulcers are sores that usually start small and then get larger and larger. The number of ulcers can vary from one to many. Some ulcers will heal quickly, but others may not heal and may last for long periods of time. Some ulcers come back after healing. People with SCD usually dont get ulcers until after the age of 10. Joint Complications Sickling in the bones of the hip and, less commonly, the shoulder joints, knees, and ankles, can decrease oxygen flow and result in severe damage. This damage is a condition called avascular or aseptic necrosis. This disease is usually found in adolescents and adults. Symptoms include pain and problems with walking and joint movement. A person may need pain medicines, surgery, or joint replacement if symptoms persist. Delayed Growth and Puberty Children with SCD may grow and develop more slowly than their peers because of anemia. They will reach full sexual maturity, but this may be delayed. Pregnancy Pregnancies in women with SCD can be risky for both the mother and the baby. Mothers may have medical complications including: Infections Blood clots High blood pressure Increased pain episodes They are also at higher risk for: Miscarriages Premature births Small-for-dates babies or underweight babies (See pregnancy management.) Mental Health As in other chronic diseases, people with SCD may feel sad and frustrated at times. The limitations that SCD can impose on a persons daily activities may cause them to feel isolated from others. Sometimes they become depressed. People with SCD may also have trouble coping with pain and fatigue, as well as with frequent medical visits and hospitalizations. (See living with emotional issues.)
What are the symptoms of Anaplasmosis ?	Anaplasmosis is a disease caused by the bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilium. This pathogen is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected tick. The black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) is the vector of A. phagocytophilum in the northeast and upper midwestern United States. The western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus) is the primary vector in Northern California. The first symptoms of anaplasmosis typically begin within 1-2 weeks after the bite of an infected tick. A tick bite is usually painless, and some patients who develop anaplasmosis do not remember being bitten. The following is a list of symptoms commonly seen with this disease. However, it is important to note that few people with the disease will develop all symptoms, and the number and combination of symptoms varies greatly from person to person. - Fever - Headache - Muscle pain - Malaise - Chills - Nausea / Abdominal pain - Cough - Confusion - Rash (rare with anaplasmosis) Anaplasmosis can be a serious illness that can be fatal if not treated correctly, even in previously healthy people. Severe clinical presentations may include difficulty breathing, hemorrhage, renal failure or neurological problems. The estimated case fatality rate (i.e., the proportion of persons who die as a result of their infection) is less than 1%. Patients who are treated early may recover quickly on outpatient medication, while those who experience a more severe course may require intravenous antibiotics, prolonged hospitalization or intensive care. Rash Rash is rarely reported in patients with anaplasmosis and the presence of a rash may signify that the patient has a coinfection with the pathogen that causes Lyme disease or another tickborne disease, such as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever . Immune-compromised Individuals The severity of anaplasmosis may depend in part on the immune status of the patient. Persons with compromised immunity caused by immunosuppressive therapies (e.g., corticosteroids, cancer chemotherapy, or longterm immunosuppressive therapy following organ transplant), HIV infection, or splenectomy appear to develop more severe disease, and case-fatality rates for these individuals are characteristically higher than case-fatality rates reported for the general population. Blood Transfusion and Organ Transplant Risks Associated with Anaplasma species Because A. phagocytophilum infects the white blood cells and circulates in the blood stream, this pathogen may pose a risk to be transmitted through blood transfusions. Anaplasma phagocytophilum has been shown to survive for more than a week in refrigerated blood. Several cases of anaplasmosis have been reported associated with the transfusion of packed red blood cells donated from asymptomatic or acutely infected donors. Patients who develop anaplasmosis within a month of receiving a blood transfusion or solid organ transplant should be reported to state health officials for prompt investigation. Use of leukoreduced blood products may theoretically decrease the risk of transfusion-associated transmission of these pathogens. However, the filtration process does not remove all leukocytes or bacteria not associated with leukocytes from leukoreduced blood. Therefore, while this process may reduce the risk of transmission, it does not eliminate it completely. Physician Diagnosis There are several aspects of anaplasmosis that make it challenging for healthcare providers to diagnose and treat. The symptoms vary from patient to patient and can be difficult to distinguish from other diseases. Treatment is more likely to be effective if started early in the course of disease. Diagnostic tests based on the detection of antibodies will frequently appear negative in the first 7-10 days of illness. For this reason, healthcare providers must use their judgment to treat patients based on clinical suspicion alone. Healthcare providers may find important information in the patient’s history and physical examination that may aid clinical diagnosis. Information such as recent tick bites, exposure to areas where ticks are likely to be found, or history of recent travel to areas where anaplasmosis is endemic can be helpful in making the diagnosis. The healthcare provider should also look at routine blood tests, such as a complete blood cell count or a chemistry panel. Clues such as a low platelet count (thrombocytopenia), low white blood cell count (leukopenia), or elevated liver enzyme levels are helpful predictors of anaplasmosis, but may not be present in all patients. After a suspect diagnosis is made on clinical suspicion and treatment has begun, specialized laboratory testing should be used to confirm the diagnosis of anaplasmosis. Laboratory Detection During the acute phase of illness, a sample of whole blood can be tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to determine if a patient has anaplasmosis. This method is most sensitive in the first week of illness, and rapidly decreases in sensitivity following the administration of appropriate antibiotics. Although a positive PCR result is helpful, a negative result does not completely rule out the diagnosis, and treatment should not be with held due to a negative result. During the first week of illness a microscopic examination of blood smears (known as a peripheral blood smear) may reveal morulae (microcolonies of anaplasma) in the cytoplasm of white blood cells in up to 20% of patients. During A. phagocytophilum infection, morulae are most frequently observed in granulocytes. However, the observance of morulae in a particular cell type cannot conclusively identify the infecting species. Culture isolation of A. phagocytophilum is only available at specialized laboratories; routine hospital blood cultures cannot detect the organism. Figure 1: Morulae detected in a granulocyte on a peripheral blood smear, associated with A. phagocytophilum infection. When a person develops anaplasmosis, their immune system produces antibodies to A. phagocytophilum, with detectable antibody titers usually observed by 7-10 days after illness onset. It is important to note that a negative test during the first week of illness does not rule out anaplasmosis as a cause of illness. The gold standard serologic test for diagnosis of anaplasmosis is the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using A. phagocytophilum antigen, performed on paired serum samples to demonstrate a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titers. The first sample should be taken as early in the disease as possible, preferably in the first week of symptoms, and the second sample should be taken 2 to 4 weeks later. In most cases of anaplasmosis, the first IgG IFA titer is typically low, or “negative,” and the second typically shows a significant (four-fold) increase in IgG antibody levels. IgM antibodies usually rise at the same time as IgG near the end of the first week of illness and remain elevated for months or longer. Also, IgM antibodies are less specific than IgG antibodies and more likely to result in a false positive. For these reasons, physicians requesting IgM serologic titers should also request a concurrent IgG titer. Serologic tests based on enzyme immunoassay (EIA) technology are available from some commercial laboratories. However, EIA tests are qualitative rather than quantitative, meaning they only provide a positive/negative result, and are less useful to measure changes in antibody titers between paired specimens. Furthermore, some EIA assays rely on the evaluation of IgM antibody alone, which may have a higher frequency of false positive results. Antibodies to A. phagocytophilum may remain elevated for months or longer after the disease has resolved, or may be detected in persons who were previously exposed to antigenically related organisms. Between 5-10% of currently healthy people in some areas may have elevated antibody titers due to past exposure to A. phagocytophilum or similar organisms. Therefore, if only one sample is tested it can be difficult to interpret, while paired samples taken weeks apart demonstrating a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titer provides the best evidence for a correct diagnosis of anaplasmosis. For more in-depth information about the diagnosis of anaplasmosis, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Treatment Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages and should be initiated immediately whenever anaplasmosis is suspected. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline or other tetracyclines has been associated with a higher risk of fatal outcome for some rickettsial infections. Doxycycline is most effective at preventing severe complications from developing if it is started early in the course of disease. Therefore, treatment must be based on clinical suspicion alone and should always begin before laboratory results return. If the patient is treated within the first 5 days of the disease, fever generally subsides within 24-72 hours. In fact, failure to respond to doxycycline suggests that the patient’s condition might not be due to anaplasmosis. Severely ill patients may require longer periods before their fever resolves. Resistance to doxcycline or relapses in symptoms after the completion of the recommended course have not been documented. Recommended Dosage Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages: - Adults: 100 mg every 12 hours - Children under 45 kg (100 lbs): 2.2 mg/kg body weight given twice a day Patients should be treated for at least 3 days after the fever subsides and until there is evidence of clinical improvement. Standard duration of treatment is 7 to 14 days. Some patients may continue to experience headache, weakness and malaise for weeks after adequate treatment. Treating children The use of doxycycline to treat suspected anaplasmosis in children is standard practice recommended by both CDC and the AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases. Unlike older generations of tetracyclines, the recommended dose and duration of medication needed to treat anaplasmosis has not been shown to cause staining of permanent teeth, even when five courses are given before the age of eight. Healthcare providers should use doxycycline as the first-line treatment for suspected anaplasmosis in patients of all ages. Other Treatments In cases of life threatening allergies to doxycycline and in some pregnant patients for whom the clinical course of anaplasmosis appears mild, physicians may need to consider alternate antibiotics. Although recommended as a second-line therapeutic alternative to treat Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever , chloramphenicol is not recommended for the treatment of anaplasmosis, as studies have shown a lack of efficacy. Rifampin has been used successfully in several pregnant women with anaplasmosis, and studies suggest that this drug appears effective against Anaplasma species. However, rifampin is not effective in treating RMSF, a disease that may be confused with anaplasmosis. Healthcare providers should be cautious when exploring treatments other than doxycycline, which is highly effective in treating both. Other antibiotics, including broad spectrum antibiotics are not considered highly effective against A. phagocytophilum, and the use of sulfa drugs during acute illness may worsen the severity of infection. Prophylaxis (Preventive Treatment) Antibiotic treatment following a tick bite is not recommended as a means to prevent anaplasmosis. There is no evidence this practice is effective, and this may simply delay onset of disease. Instead, persons who experience a tick bite should be alert for symptoms suggestive of tickborne illness and consult a physician if fever, rash, or other symptoms of concern develop. For more in-depth information about treatment, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Other Considerations The clinical presentation for anaplasmosis can resemble other tickborne diseases, such as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever and ehrlichiosis. Similar to anaplasmosis, these infections respond well to treatment with doxycycline. Healthcare providers should order diagnostic tests for additional agents if the clinical history and geographic association warrant. For more in-depth about other similar tickborne diseases, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm .

What are the treatments for Sickle Cell Disease ?

Health Maintenance To Prevent Complications Babies with sickle cell disease (SCD) should be referred to a doctor or provider group that has experience taking care of people with this disease. The doctor might be a hematologist (a doctor with special training in blood diseases) or an experienced general pediatrician, internist, or family practitioner. For infants, the first SCD visit should take place before 8 weeks of age. If someone was born in a country that doesnt perform newborn SCD screening, he or she might be diagnosed with SCD later in childhood. These people should also be referred as soon as possible for special SCD care. Examining the person Giving medicines and immunizations Performing tests Educating families about the disease and what to watch out for Preventing Infection In SCD, the spleen doesnt work properly or doesnt work at all. This problem makes people with SCD more likely to get severe infections. Penicillin In children with SCD, taking penicillin two times a day has been shown to reduce the chance of having a severe infection caused by the pneumococcus bacteria. Infants need to take liquid penicillin. Older children can take tablets. Many doctors will stop prescribing penicillin after a child has reached the age of 5. Some prefer to continue this antibiotic throughout life, particularly if a person has hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S0 thalassemia, since people with SCD are still at risk. All people who have had surgical removal of the spleen, called a splenectomy, or a past infection with pneumococcus should keep taking penicillin throughout life. Immunizations People with SCD should receive all recommended childhood vaccines. They should also receive additional vaccines to prevent other infections. Pneumococcus. Even though all children routinely receive the vaccine against pneumococcus (PCV13), children with SCD should also receive a second kind of vaccine against pneumococcus (PPSV23). This second vaccine is given after 24 months of age and again 5 years later. Adults with SCD who have not received any pneumococcal vaccine should get a dose of the PCV13 vaccine. They should later receive the PPSV23 if they have not already received it or it has been more than 5 years since they did. A person should follow these guidelines even if he or she is still taking penicillin. Influenza. All people with SCD should receive an influenza shot every year at the start of flu season. This should begin at 6 months of age. Only the inactivated vaccine, which comes as a shot, should be used in people with SCD. Meningococcus. A child with SCD should receive this vaccine (Menactra or Menveo) at 2, 4, 6, and 1215 months of age. The child should receive a booster vaccine 3 years after this series of shots, then every 5 years after that. Screening Tests and Evaluations Height, Weight, Blood Pressure, and Oxygen Saturation Doctors will monitor height and weight to be sure that a child is growing properly and that a person with SCD is maintaining a healthy weight. Doctors will also track a persons blood pressure. When a person with SCD has high blood pressure, it needs to be treated promptly because it can increase the risk of stroke. Oxygen saturation testing provides information about how much oxygen the blood is carrying. Blood and Urine Testing People with SCD need to have frequent lab tests. Blood tests help to establish a persons baseline for problems like anemia. Blood testing also helps to show whether a person has organ damage, so that it can be treated early. Urine testing can help to detect early kidney problems or infections. Transcranial Doppler (TCD) Ultrasound Screening Children who have hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S0 thalassemia and are between the ages of 2 and 16 should have TCD testing once a year. This study can find out whether a child is at higher risk for stroke. When the test is abnormal, regular blood transfusions can decrease the chances of having a stroke. The child is awake during the TCD exam. The test does not hurt at all. The TCD machine uses sound waves to measure blood flow like the ultrasound machine used to examine pregnant women. Eye Examinations An eye doctor, or ophthalmologist, should examine a persons eyes every 12 years from the age of 10 onwards. These exams can detect if there are SCD-related problems of the eye. Regular exams can help doctors find and treat problems early to prevent loss of vision. A person should see his or her doctor right away for any sudden change in vision. Pulmonary Hypertension Doctors have different approaches to screening for pulmonary hypertension. This is because studies have not given clear information as to when and how a person should receive the screening. People with SCD and their caretakers should discuss with their doctor whether screening makes sense for them. Cognitive Screening People with sickle cell disease can develop cognitive (thinking) problems that may be hard to notice early in life. Sometimes these problems are caused by silent strokes that can only be seen with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. People with SCD should tell their doctors or nurses if they have thinking problems, such as difficulties learning in school, slowed decision making, or trouble organizing their thoughts. People can be referred for cognitive testing. This testing can identify areas in which a person could use extra help. Children with SCD who have thinking problems may qualify for an Individualized Education Program, or IEP. An IEP is a plan that helps students to reach their educational goals. Adults may be able to enroll in vocational rehabilitation programs that can help them with job training. Education and Guidance Doctors and other providers will talk with people who have SCD and their caretakers about complications and also review information at every visit. Because there are a lot of things to discuss, new topics are often introduced as a child or adult reaches an age when that subject is important to know about. Doctors and nurses know that there is a lot of information to learn, and they dont expect people to know everything after one discussion. People with SCD and their families should not be afraid to ask questions. Topics that are usually covered include: Hours that medical staff are available and contact information to use when people with SCD or caretakers have questions A plan for what to do and where to get care if a person has a fever, pain, or other signs of SCD complications that need immediate attention How SCD is inherited and the risk of having a child with SCD The importance of regular medical visits, screening tests, and evaluations How to recognize and manage pain How to palpate (feel) a childs spleen. Because of the risk of splenic sequestration crisis, caretakers should learn how to palpate a childs spleen. They should try to feel for the spleen daily and more frequently when the child is ill. If they feel that the spleen is bigger than usual, they should call the care provider. Transitioning Care When children with SCD become adolescents or young adults, they often need to transition from a pediatric care team to an adult care team. This period has been shown to be associated with increased hospital admissions and medical problems. There seem to be many reasons for this. Some of the increased risk is directly related to the disease. As people with SCD get older, they often develop more organ damage and more disabilities. The shift in care usually occurs at the same time that adolescents are undergoing many changes in their emotional, social, and academic lives. The transition to more independent self-management may be difficult, and following treatment plans may become less likely. When compared with pediatrics, there are often fewer adult SCD programs available in a given region. This makes it more difficult for a person with SCD to find appropriate doctors, particularly those with whom they feel comfortable. To improve use of regular medical care by people with SCD and to reduce age-related complications, many SCD teams have developed special programs that the make transition easier. Such programs should involve the pediatric and the adult care teams. They should also start early and continue over several years. Managing Some Complications of SCD Acute Pain Each person with SCD should have a home treatment regimen that is best suited to their needs. The providers on the SCD team usually help a person develop a written, tailored care plan. If possible, the person with SCD should carry this plan with them when they go to the emergency room. When an acute crisis is just starting, most doctors will advise the person to drink lots of fluids and to take a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) pain medication, such as ibuprofen. When a person has kidney problems, acetaminophen is often preferred. If pain persists, many people will find that they need a stronger medicine. Combining additional interventions, such as massage, relaxation methods, or a heating pad, may also help. If a person with SCD cannot control the pain at home, he or she should go to an SCD day hospital/outpatient unit or an emergency room to receive additional, stronger medicines and intravenous (IV) fluids. Some people may be able to return home once their pain is under better control. In this case, the doctor may prescribe additional pain medicines for a short course of therapy. People often need to be admitted to the hospital to fully control an acute pain crisis. When taken daily, hydroxyurea has been found to decrease the number and severity of pain episodes. Chronic Pain Sometimes chronic pain results from a complication, such as a leg ulcer or aseptic necrosis of the hip. In this case, doctors try to treat the complication causing the pain. While chronic pain is common in adults with SCD, the cause is often poorly understood. Taking pain medicines daily may help to decrease the pain. Some examples of these medicines include: NSAID drugs, such as ibuprofen Duloxetine Gabapentin Amitriptyline Strong pain medicines, such as opiates Other approaches, such as massage, heat, or acupuncture may be helpful in some cases. Chronic pain often comes with feelings of depression and anxiety. Supportive counseling and, sometimes, antidepressant medicines may help. (See coping and emotional issues.) Severe Anemia People should see their doctors or go to a hospital right away if they develop anemia symptoms from a splenic sequestration crisis or an aplastic crisis. These conditions can be life-threatening, and the person will need careful monitoring and treatment in the hospital. A person also usually needs a blood transfusion. People with SCD and symptoms of severe anemia from other causes should also see a doctor right away. Infections Fever is a medical emergency in SCD. All caretakers of infants and children with SCD should take their child to their doctor or go to a hospital right away when their child has a fever. Adults with SCD should also seek care for fever or other signs of infection. All children and adults who have SCD and a fever (over 38.50 C or 101.30 F) must be seen by a doctor and treated with antibiotics right away. Some people will need to be hospitalized, while others may receive care and follow-up as an outpatient. Acute Chest Syndrome People with SCD and symptoms of acute chest syndrome should see their doctor or go to a hospital right away. They will need to be admitted to the hospital where they should receive antibiotics and close monitoring. They may need oxygen therapy and a blood transfusion. When taken daily, the medicine hydroxyurea has been found to decrease the number and severity of acute chest events. Clinical Stroke People with SCD who have symptoms of stroke should be brought to the hospital right away by an ambulance. If a person is having symptoms of stroke, someone should call 9-1-1. Symptoms of stroke may include: Weakness of an arm or leg on one side of the body Trouble speaking, walking, or understanding Loss of balance Severe headache If imaging studies reveal that the person has had an acute stroke, he or she may need an exchange transfusion. This procedure involves slowly removing an amount of the persons blood and replacing it with blood from a donor who does not have SCD or sickle cell trait. Afterward, the person may need to receive monthly transfusions or other treatments to help to prevent another stroke. Silent Stroke and Cognitive Problems Children and adults with SCD and cognitive problems may be able to get useful help based upon the results of their testing. For instance, children may qualify for an IEP. Adults may be able to enroll in vocational, or job, training programs. Priapism Sometimes, a person may be able to relieve priapism by: Emptying the bladder by urinating Taking medicine Increasing fluid intake Doing light exercise If a person has an episode that lasts for 4 hours or more, he should go to the hospital to see a hematologist and urologist. Pregnancy Pregnant women with SCD are at greater risk for problems. They should always see an obstetrician, or OB, who has experience with SCD and high-risk pregnancies and deliveries. The obstetrician should work with a hematologist or primary medical doctor who is well informed about SCD and its complications. Pregnant women with SCD need more frequent medical visits so that their doctors can follow them closely. The doctor may prescribe certain vitamins and will be careful to prescribe pain medicines that are safe for the baby. A pregnant woman with SCD may need to have one or more blood transfusions during her pregnancy to treat complications, such as worsening anemia or an increased number of pain or acute chest syndrome events. Hydroxyurea What Is Hydroxyurea? Hydroxyurea is an oral medicine that has been shown to reduce or prevent several SCD complications. This medicine was studied in patients with SCD because it was known to increase the amount of fetal hemoglobin (hemoglobin F) in the blood. Increased hemoglobin F provides some protection against the effects of hemoglobin S. Hydroxyurea was later found to have several other benefits for a person with SCD, such as decreasing inflammation. Use in adults. Many studies of adults with hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S thalassemia showed that hydroxyurea reduced the number of episodes of pain crises and acute chest syndrome. It also improved anemia and decreased the need for transfusions and hospital admissions. Use in children. Studies in children with severe hemoglobin SS or S thalassemia showed that hydroxyurea reduced the number of vaso-occlusive crises and hospitalizations. A study of very young children (between the ages of 9 and 18 months) with hemoglobin SS or hemoglobin S thalassemia also showed that hydroxyurea decreased the number of episodes of pain and dactylitis. Who Should Use Hydroxyurea? Since hydroxyurea can decrease several complications of SCD, most experts recommend that children and adults with hemoglobin SS or S0 thalassemia who have frequent painful episodes, recurrent chest crises, or severe anemia take hydroxyurea daily. Some experts offer hydroxyurea to all infants over 9 months of age and young children with hemoglobin SS or S0 thalassemia, even if they do not have severe clinical problems, to prevent or reduce the chance of complications. There is no information about how safe or effective hydroxyurea is in children under 9 months of age. Some experts will prescribe hydroxyurea to people with other types of SCD who have severe, recurrent pain. There is little information available about how effective hydroxyurea is for these types of SCD. In all situations, people with SCD should discuss with their doctors whether or not hydroxyurea is an appropriate medication for them. Pregnant women should not use hydroxyurea. How Is Hydroxyurea Taken? To work properly, hydroxyurea should be taken by mouth daily at the prescribed dose. When a person does not take it regularly, it will not work as well, or it wont work at all. A person with SCD who is taking hydroxyurea needs careful monitoring. This is particularly true in the early weeks of taking the medicine. Monitoring includes regular blood testing and dose adjustments. What Are the Risks of Hydroxyurea? Hydroxyurea can cause the bloods white cell count or platelet count to drop. In rare cases, it can worsen anemia. These side effects usually go away quickly if a person stops taking the medication. When a person restarts it, a doctor usually prescribes a lower dose. Other short-term side effects are less common. It is still unclear whether hydroxyurea can cause problems later in life in people with SCD who take it for many years. Studies so far suggest that it does not put people at a higher risk of cancer and does not affect growth in children. But further studies are needed. Red Blood Cell Transfusions Doctors may use acute and chronic red blood cell transfusions to treat and prevent certain SCD complications. The red blood cells in a transfusion have normal hemoglobin in them. A transfusion helps to raise the number of red blood cells and provides normal red blood cells that are more flexible than red blood cells with sickle hemoglobin. These cells live longer in the circulation. Red blood cell transfusions decrease vaso-occlusion (blockage in the blood vessel) and improve oxygen delivery to the tissues and organs. Acute Transfusion in SCD Doctors use blood transfusions in SCD for complications that cause severe anemia. They may also use them when a person has an acute stroke, in many cases of acute chest crises, and in multi-organ failure. A person with SCD usually receives blood transfusions before surgery to prevent SCD-related complications afterwards. Chronic Transfusion Doctors recommend regular or ongoing blood transfusions for people who have had an acute stroke, since transfusions decrease the chances of having another stroke. Doctors also recommend chronic blood transfusions for children who have abnormal TCD ultrasound results because transfusions can reduce the chance of having a first stroke. Some doctors use this approach to treat complications that do not improve with hydroxyurea. They may also use transfusions in people who have too many side effects from hydroxyurea. What Are the Risks of Transfusion Therapy? Possible complications include: Hemolysis Iron overload, particularly in people receiving chronic transfusions (can severely impair heart and lung function) Infection Alloimmunization (can make it hard to find a matching unit of blood for a future transfusion) All blood banks and hospital personnel have adopted practices to reduce the risk of transfusion problems. People with SCD who receive transfusions should be monitored for and immunized against hepatitis. They should also receive regular screenings for iron overload. If a person has iron overload, the doctor will give chelation therapy, a medicine to reduce the amount of iron in the body and the problems that iron overload causes. Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation At the present time, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the only cure for SCD. People with SCD and their families should ask their doctor about this procedure. What Are Stem Cells? Stem cells are special cells that can divide over and over again. After they divide, these cells can go on to become blood red cells, white cells, or platelets. A person with SCD has stem cells that make red blood cells that can sickle. People without SCD have stem cells that make red cells that usually wont sickle. What Stem Cells Are Used in HSCT? In HSCT, stem cells are taken from the bone marrow or blood of a person who does not have sickle cell disease (the donor). The donor, however, may have sickle cell trait. The donor is often the persons sister or brother. This is because the safest and most successful transplants use stem cells that are matched for special proteins called HLA antigens. Since these antigens are inherited from parents, a sister or brother is the most likely person to have the same antigens as the person with SCD. What Happens During HSCT? First, stem cells are taken from the donor. After this, the person with SCD (the recipient) is treated with drugs that destroy or reduce his or her own bone marrow stem cells. The donor stem cells are then injected into the persons vein. The injected cells will make a home in the recipients bone marrow, gradually replacing the recipients cells. The new stem cells will make red cells that do not sickle. Which People Receive HSCT? At the present time, most SCD transplants are performed in children who have had complications such as strokes, acute chest crises, and recurring pain crises. These transplants usually use a matched donor. Because only about 1 in 10 children with SCD has a matched donor without SCD in their families, the number of people with SCD who get transplants is low. HSCT is more risky in adults, and that is why most transplants are done in children. There are several medical centers that are researching new SCD HSCT techniques in children and adults who dont have a matched donor in the family or are older than most recipients. Hopefully, more people with SCD will be able to receive a transplant in the future, using these new methods. What Are the Risks? HSCT is successful in about 85 percent of children when the donor is related and HLA matched. Even with this high success rate, HSCT still has risks. Complications can include severe infections, seizures, and other clinical problems. About 5 percent of people have died. Sometimes transplanted cells attack the recipients organs (graft versus host disease). Medicines are given to prevent many of the complications, but they still can happen.

What are the treatments for Overweight and Obesity ?

Successful weight-loss treatments include setting goals and making lifestyle changes, such as eating fewer calories and being physically active. Medicines and weight-loss surgery also are options for some people if lifestyle changes aren't enough. Set Realistic Goals Setting realistic weight-loss goals is an important first step to losing weight. For Adults Try to lose 5 to 10 percent of your current weight over 6 months. This will lower your risk for coronary heart disease (CHD) and other conditions. The best way to lose weight is slowly. A weight loss of 1 to 2 pounds a week is do-able, safe, and will help you keep off the weight. It also will give you the time to make new, healthy lifestyle changes. If you've lost 10 percent of your body weight, have kept it off for 6 months, and are still overweight or obese, you may want to consider further weight loss. For Children and Teens If your child is overweight or at risk for overweight or obesity, the goal is to maintain his or her current weight and to focus on eating healthy and being physically active. This should be part of a family effort to make lifestyle changes. If your child is overweight or obese and has a health condition related to overweight or obesity, your doctor may refer you to a pediatric obesity treatment center. Lifestyle Changes Lifestyle changes can help you and your family achieve long-term weight-loss success. Example of lifestyle changes include: Focusing on balancing energy IN (calories from food and drinks) with energy OUT (physical activity) Following a healthy eating plan Learning how to adopt healthy lifestyle habits Over time, these changes will become part of your everyday life. Calories Cutting back on calories (energy IN) will help you lose weight. To lose 1 to 2pounds a week, adults should cut back their calorie intake by 500 to 1,000calories a day. In general, having 1,000 to 1,200 calories a day will help most women lose weight safely. In general, having 1,200 to 1,600 calories a day will help most men lose weight safely. This calorie range also is suitable for women who weigh 165pounds or more or who exercise routinely. These calorie levels are a guide and may need to be adjusted. If you eat 1,600calories a day but don't lose weight, then you may want to cut back to 1,200calories. If you're hungry on either diet, then you may want to add 100 to 200calories a day. Very low-calorie diets with fewer than 800 calories a day shouldn't be used unless your doctor is monitoring you. For overweight children and teens, it's important to slow the rate of weight gain. However, reduced-calorie diets aren't advised unless you talk with a health care provider. Healthy Eating Plan A healthy eating plan gives your body the nutrients it needs every day. It has enough calories for good health, but not so many that you gain weight. A healthy eating plan is low in saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium (salt), and added sugar. Following a healthy eating plan will lower your risk for heart disease and other conditions. Healthy foods include: Fat-free and low-fat dairy products, such as low-fat yogurt, cheese, and milk. Protein foods, such as lean meat, fish, poultry without skin, beans, and peas. Whole-grain foods, such as whole-wheat bread, oatmeal, and brown rice. Other grain foods include pasta, cereal, bagels, bread, tortillas, couscous, and crackers. Fruits, which can be fresh, canned, frozen, or dried. Vegetables, which can be fresh, canned (without salt), frozen, or dried. Canola and olive oils, and soft margarines made from these oils, are heart healthy. However, you should use them in small amounts because they're high in calories. You also can include unsalted nuts, like walnuts and almonds, in your diet as long as you limit the amount you eat (nuts also are high in calories). The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's "Aim for a Healthy Weight" patient booklet provides more information about following a healthy eating plan. Foods to limit. Foods that are high in saturated and trans fats and cholesterol raise blood cholesterol levels and also might be high in calories. Fats and cholesterol raise your risk for heart disease, so they should be limited. Saturated fat is found mainly in: Fatty cuts of meat, such as ground beef, sausage, and processed meats (for example, bologna, hot dogs, and deli meats) Poultry with the skin High-fat dairy products like whole-milk cheeses, whole milk, cream, butter, and ice cream Lard, coconut, and palm oils, which are found in many processed foods Trans fat is found mainly in: Foods with partially hydrogenated oils, such as many hard margarines and shortening Baked products and snack foods, such as crackers, cookies, doughnuts, and breads Foods fried in hydrogenated shortening, such as french fries and chicken Cholesterol mainly is found in: Egg yolks Organ meats, such as liver Shrimp Whole milk or whole-milk products, such as butter, cream, and cheese Limiting foods and drinks with added sugars, like high-fructose corn syrup, is important. Added sugars will give you extra calories without nutrients like vitamins and minerals. Added sugars are found in many desserts, canned fruit packed in syrup, fruit drinks, and nondiet drinks. Check the list of ingredients on food packages for added sugars like high-fructose corn syrup. Drinks that contain alcohol also will add calories, so it's a good idea to limit your alcohol intake. Portion size. A portion is the amount of food that you choose to eat for a meal or snack. It's different from a serving, which is a measured amount of food and is noted on the Nutrition Facts label on food packages. Anyone who has eaten out lately is likely to notice how big the portions are. In fact, over the past 40 years, portion sizes have grown significantly. These growing portion sizes have changed what we think of as a normal portion. Cutting back on portion size is a good way to eat fewer calories and balance your energy IN. Food weight. Studies have shown that we all tend to eat a constant "weight" of food. Ounce for ounce, our food intake is fairly consistent. Knowing this, you can lose weight if you eat foods that are lower in calories and fat for a given amount of food. For example, replacing a full-fat food product that weighs 2 ounces with a low-fat product that weighs the same helps you cut back on calories. Another helpful practice is to eat foods that contain a lot of water, such as vegetables, fruits, and soups. Physical Activity Being physically active and eating fewer calories will help you lose weight and keep weight off over time. Physical activity also will benefit you in other ways. It will: Lower your risk for heart disease, heart attack, diabetes, and cancers (such as breast, uterine, and colon cancers) Strengthen your heart and help your lungs work better Strengthen your muscles and keep your joints in good condition Slow bone loss Give you more energy Help you relax and better cope with stress Allow you to fall asleep more quickly and sleep more soundly Give you an enjoyable way to share time with friends and family The four main types of physical activity are aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone strengthening, and stretching. You can do physical activity with light, moderate, or vigorous intensity. The level of intensity depends on how hard you have to work to do the activity. People vary in the amount of physical activity they need to control their weight. Many people can maintain their weight by doing 150 to 300 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes to 5 hours) of moderate-intensity activity per week, such as brisk walking. People who want to lose a large amount of weight (more than 5 percent of their body weight) may need to do more than 300 minutes of moderate-intensity activity per week. This also may be true for people who want to keep off weight that they've lost. You don't have to do the activity all at once. You can break it up into short periods of at least 10 minutes each. If you have a heart problem or chronic disease, such as heart disease, diabetes, or high blood pressure, talk with your doctor about what types of physical activity are safe for you. You also should talk with your doctor about safe physical activities if you have symptoms such as chest pain or dizziness. Children should get at least 60 minutes or more of physical activity every day. Most physical activity should be moderate-intensity aerobic activity. Activity should vary and be a good fit for the child's age and physical development. Many people lead inactive lives and might not be motivated to do more physical activity. When starting a physical activity program, some people may need help and supervision to avoid injury. If you're obese, or if you haven't been active in the past, start physical activity slowly and build up the intensity a little at a time. When starting out, one way to be active is to do more everyday activities, such as taking the stairs instead of the elevator and doing household chores and yard work. The next step is to start walking, biking, or swimming at a slow pace, and then build up the amount of time you exercise or the intensity level of the activity. To lose weight and gain better health, it's important to get moderate-intensity physical activity. Choose activities that you enjoy and that fit into your daily life. A daily, brisk walk is an easy way to be more active and improve your health. Use a pedometer to count your daily steps and keep track of how much you're walking. Try to increase the number of steps you take each day. Other examples of moderate-intensity physical activity include dancing, gardening, and water aerobics. For greater health benefits, try to step up your level of activity or the length of time you're active. For example, start walking for 10 to 15 minutes three times a week, and then build up to brisk walking for 60 minutes, 5 days a week. For more information about physical activity, go to the Department of Health and Human Services "2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans" and the Health Topics Physical Activity and Your Heart article. Behavioral Changes Changing your behaviors or habits related to food and physical activity is important for losing weight. The first step is to understand which habits lead you to overeat or have an inactive lifestyle. The next step is to change these habits. Below are some simple tips to help you adopt healthier habits. Change your surroundings. You might be more likely to overeat when watching TV, when treats are available at work, or when you're with a certain friend. You also might find it hard to motivate yourself to be physically active. However, you can change these habits. Instead of watching TV, dance to music in your living room or go for a walk. Leave the office break room right after you get a cup of coffee. Bring a change of clothes to work. Head straight to an exercise class on the way home from work. Put a note on your calendar to remind yourself to take a walk or go to your exercise class. Keep a record. A record of your food intake and the amount of physical activity that you do each day will help inspire you. You also can keep track of your weight. For example, when the record shows that you've been meeting your physical activity goals, you'll want to keep it up. A record also is an easy way to track how you're doing, especially if you're working with a registered dietitian or nutritionist. Seek support. Ask for help or encouragement from your friends, family, and health care provider. You can get support in person, through e-mail, or by talking on the phone. You also can join a support group. Reward success. Reward your success for meeting your weight-loss goals or other achievements with something you would like to do, not with food. Choose rewards that you'll enjoy, such as a movie, music CD, an afternoon off from work, a massage, or personal time. Weight-Loss Medicines Weight-loss medicines approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) might be an option for some people. If you're not successful at losing 1 pound a week after 6months of using lifestyle changes, medicines may help. You should only use medicines as part of a program that includes diet, physical activity, and behavioral changes. Weight-loss medicines might be suitable for adults who are obese (a BMI of 30 or greater). People who have BMIs of 27 or greater, and who are at risk for heart disease and other health conditions, also may benefit from weight-loss medicines. Sibutramine (Meridia) As of October 2010, the weight-loss medicine sibutramine (Meridia) was taken off the market in the United States. Research showed that the medicine may raise the risk of heart attack and stroke. Orlistat (Xenical and Alli) Orlistat (Xenical) causes a weight loss between 5 and 10 pounds, although some people lose more weight. Most of the weight loss occurs within the first 6 months of taking the medicine. People taking Xenical need regular checkups with their doctors, especially during the first year of taking the medicine. During checkups, your doctor will check your weight, blood pressure, and pulse and may recommend other tests. He or she also will talk with you about any medicine side effects and answer your questions. The FDA also has approved Alli, an over-the-counter (OTC) weight-loss aid for adults. Alli is the lower dose form of orlistat. Alli is meant to be used along with a reduced-calorie, low-fat diet and physical activity. In studies, most people taking Alli lost 5 to 10pounds over 6 months. Both Xenical and Alli reduce the absorption of fats, fat calories, and vitamins A, D, E, and K to promote weight loss. Both medicines also can cause mild side effects, such as oily and loose stools. Although rare, some reports of liver disease have occurred with the use of orlistat. More research is needed to find out whether the medicine plays a role in causing liver disease. Talk with your doctor if youre considering using Xenical or Alli to lose weight. He or she can discuss the risks and benefits with you. You also should talk with your doctor before starting orlistat if youre taking blood-thinning medicines or being treated for diabetes or thyroid disease. Also, ask your doctor whether you should take a multivitamin due to the possible loss of some vitamins. Lorcaserin Hydrochloride (Belviq) and Qsymia In July 2012, the FDA approved two new medicines for chronic (ongoing) weight management. Lorcaserin hydrochloride (Belviq) and Qsymia are approved for adults who have a BMI of 30 or greater. (Qsymia is a combination of two FDA-approved medicines: phentermine and topiramate.) These medicines also are approved for adults with a BMI of 27 or greater who have at least one weight-related condition, such as high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, or high blood cholesterol. Both medicines are meant to be used along with a reduced-calorie diet and physical activity. Other Medicines Some prescription medicines are used for weight loss, but aren't FDA-approved for treating obesity. They include: Medicines to treat depression. Some medicines for depression cause an initial weight loss and then a regain of weight while taking the medicine. Medicines to treat seizures. Two medicines used for seizures, topiramate and zonisamide, have been shown to cause weight loss. These medicines are being studied to see whether they will be useful in treating obesity. Medicines to treat diabetes. Metformin may cause small amounts of weight loss in people who have obesity and diabetes. It's not known how this medicine causes weight loss, but it has been shown to reduce hunger and food intake. Over-the-Counter Products Some OTC products claim to promote weight loss. The FDA doesn't regulate these products because they're considered dietary supplements, not medicines. However, many of these products have serious side effects and generally aren't recommended. Some of these OTC products include: Ephedra (also called ma huang). Ephedra comes from plants and has been sold as a dietary supplement. The active ingredient in the plant is called ephedrine. Ephedra can cause short-term weight loss, but it also has serious side effects. It causes high blood pressure and stresses the heart. In 2004, the FDA banned the sale of dietary supplements containing ephedra in the United States. Chromium. This is a mineral that's sold as a dietary supplement to reduce body fat. While studies haven't found any weight-loss benefit from chromium, there are few serious side effects from taking it. Diuretics and herbal laxatives. These products cause you to lose water weight, not fat. They also can lower your body's potassium levels, which may cause heart and muscle problems. Hoodia. Hoodia is a cactus that's native to Africa. It's sold in pill form as an appetite suppressant. However, no firm evidence shows that hoodia works. No large-scale research has been done on humans to show whether hoodia is effective or safe. Weight-Loss Surgery Weight-loss surgery might be an option for people who have extreme obesity (BMI of 40 or more) when other treatments have failed. Weight-loss surgery also is an option for people who have a BMI of 35 or more and life-threatening conditions, such as: Severe sleep apnea (a condition in which you have one or more pauses in breathing or shallow breaths while you sleep) Obesity-related cardiomyopathy (KAR-de-o-mi-OP-ah-thee; diseases of the heart muscle) Severe type 2 diabetes Types of Weight-Loss Surgery Two common weight-loss surgeries include banded gastroplasty and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. For gastroplasty, a band or staples are used to create a small pouch at the top of your stomach. This surgery limits the amount of food and liquids the stomach can hold. For gastric bypass, a small stomach pouch is created with a bypass around part of the small intestine where most of the calories you eat are absorbed. This surgery limits food intake and reduces the calories your body absorbs. Weight-loss surgery can improve your health and weight. However, the surgery can be risky, depending on your overall health. Gastroplasty has few long-term side effects, but you must limit your food intake dramatically. Gastric bypass has more side effects. They include nausea (feeling sick to your stomach), bloating, diarrhea, and faintness. These side effects are all part of a condition called dumping syndrome. After gastric bypass, you may need multivitamins and minerals to prevent nutrient deficiencies. Lifelong medical followup is needed after both surgeries. Your doctor also may recommend a program both before and after surgery to help you with diet, physical activity, and coping skills. If you think you would benefit from weight-loss surgery, talk with your doctor. Ask whether you're a candidate for the surgery and discuss the risks, benefits, and what to expect. Weight-Loss Maintenance Maintaining your weight loss over time can be a challenge. For adults, weight loss is a success if you lose at least 10 percent of your initial weight and you don't regain more than 6 or 7 pounds in 2 years. You also must keep a lower waist circumference (at least 2 inches lower than your waist circumference before you lost weight). After 6 months of keeping off the weight, you can think about losing more if: You've already lost 5 to 10 percent of your body weight You're still overweight or obese The key to losing more weight or maintaining your weight loss is to continue with lifestyle changes. Adopt these changes as a new way of life. If you want to lose more weight, you may need to eat fewer calories and increase your activity level. For example, if you eat 1,600 calories a day but don't lose weight, you may want to cut back to 1,200 calories. It's also important to make physical activity part of your normal daily routine.

What are the treatments for Asthma ?

Asthma is a long-term disease that has no cure. The goal of asthma treatment is to control the disease. Good asthma control will: Prevent chronic and troublesome symptoms, such as coughing and shortness of breath Reduce your need for quick-relief medicines (see below) Help you maintain good lung function Let you maintain your normal activity level and sleep through the night Prevent asthma attacks that could result in an emergency room visit or hospital stay To control asthma, partner with your doctor to manage your asthma or your child's asthma. Children aged 10 or olderand younger children who are ableshould take an active role in their asthma care. Taking an active role to control your asthma involves: Working with your doctor to treat other conditions that can interfere with asthma management. Avoiding things that worsen your asthma (asthma triggers). However, one trigger you should not avoid is physical activity. Physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle. Talk with your doctor about medicines that can help you stay active. Working with your doctor and other health care providers to create and follow an asthma action plan. An asthma action plan gives guidance on taking your medicines properly, avoiding asthma triggers (except physical activity), tracking your level of asthma control, responding to worsening symptoms, and seeking emergency care when needed. Asthma is treated with two types of medicines: long-term control and quick-relief medicines. Long-term control medicines help reduce airway inflammation and prevent asthma symptoms. Quick-relief, or "rescue," medicines relieve asthma symptoms that may flare up. Your initial treatment will depend on the severity of your asthma. Followup asthma treatment will depend on how well your asthma action plan is controlling your symptoms and preventing asthma attacks. Your level of asthma control can vary over time and with changes in your home, school, or work environments. These changes can alter how often you're exposed to the factors that can worsen your asthma. Your doctor may need to increase your medicine if your asthma doesn't stay under control. On the other hand, if your asthma is well controlled for several months, your doctor may decrease your medicine. These adjustments to your medicine will help you maintain the best control possible with the least amount of medicine necessary. Asthma treatment for certain groups of peoplesuch as children, pregnant women, or those for whom exercise brings on asthma symptomswill be adjusted to meet their special needs. Follow an Asthma Action Plan You can work with your doctor to create a personal asthma action plan. The plan will describe your daily treatments, such as which medicines to take and when to take them. The plan also will explain when to call your doctor or go to the emergency room. If your child has asthma, all of the people who care for him or her should know about the child's asthma action plan. This includes babysitters and workers at daycare centers, schools, and camps. These caretakers can help your child follow his or her action plan. Go to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's (NHLBI's) "Asthma Action Plan" for a sample plan. Avoid Things That Can Worsen Your Asthma Many common things (called asthma triggers) can set off or worsen your asthma symptoms. Once you know what these things are, you can take steps to control many of them. (For more information about asthma triggers, go to "What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Asthma?") For example, exposure to pollens or air pollution might make your asthma worse. If so, try to limit time outdoors when the levels of these substances in the outdoor air are high. If animal fur triggers your asthma symptoms, keep pets with fur out of your home or bedroom. One possible asthma trigger you shouldnt avoid is physical activity. Physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle. Talk with your doctor about medicines that can help you stay active. The NHLBI offers many useful tips for controlling asthma triggers. For more information, go to page 2 of NHLBI's "Asthma Action Plan." If your asthma symptoms are clearly related to allergens, and you can't avoid exposure to those allergens, your doctor may advise you to get allergy shots. You may need to see a specialist if you're thinking about getting allergy shots. These shots can lessen or prevent your asthma symptoms, but they can't cure your asthma. Several health conditions can make asthma harder to manage. These conditions include runny nose, sinus infections, reflux disease, psychological stress, and sleep apnea. Your doctor will treat these conditions as well. Medicines Your doctor will consider many things when deciding which asthma medicines are best for you. He or she will check to see how well a medicine works for you. Then, he or she will adjust the dose or medicine as needed. Asthma medicines can be taken in pill form, but most are taken using a device called an inhaler. An inhaler allows the medicine to go directly to your lungs. Not all inhalers are used the same way. Ask your doctor or another health care provider to show you the right way to use your inhaler. Review the way you use your inhaler at every medical visit. Long-Term Control Medicines Most people who have asthma need to take long-term control medicines daily to help prevent symptoms. The most effective long-term medicines reduce airway inflammation, which helps prevent symptoms from starting. These medicines don't give you quick relief from symptoms. Inhaled corticosteroids. Inhaled corticosteroids are the preferred medicine for long-term control of asthma. They're the most effective option for long-term relief of the inflammation and swelling that makes your airways sensitive to certain inhaled substances. Reducing inflammation helps prevent the chain reaction that causes asthma symptoms. Most people who take these medicines daily find they greatly reduce the severity of symptoms and how often they occur. Inhaled corticosteroids generally are safe when taken as prescribed. These medicines are different from the illegal anabolic steroids taken by some athletes. Inhaled corticosteroids aren't habit-forming, even if you take them every day for many years. Like many other medicines, though, inhaled corticosteroids can have side effects. Most doctors agree that the benefits of taking inhaled corticosteroids and preventing asthma attacks far outweigh the risk of side effects. One common side effect from inhaled corticosteroids is a mouth infection called thrush. You might be able to use a spacer or holding chamber on your inhaler to avoid thrush. These devices attach to your inhaler. They help prevent the medicine from landing in your mouth or on the back of your throat. Check with your doctor to see whether a spacer or holding chamber should be used with the inhaler you have. Also, work with your health care team if you have any questions about how to use a spacer or holding chamber. Rinsing your mouth out with water after taking inhaled corticosteroids also can lower your risk for thrush. If you have severe asthma, you may have to take corticosteroid pills or liquid for short periods to get your asthma under control. If taken for long periods, these medicines raise your risk for cataracts and osteoporosis (OS-te-o-po-RO-sis). A cataract is the clouding of the lens in your eye. Osteoporosis is a disorder that makes your bones weak and more likely to break. Your doctor may have you add another long-term asthma control medicine so he or she can lower your dose of corticosteroids. Or, your doctor may suggest you take calcium and vitamin D pills to protect your bones. Other long-term control medicines. Other long-term control medicines include: Cromolyn. This medicine is taken using a device called a nebulizer. As you breathe in, the nebulizer sends a fine mist of medicine to your lungs. Cromolyn helps prevent airway inflammation. Omalizumab (anti-IgE). This medicine is given as a shot (injection) one or two times a month. It helps prevent your body from reacting to asthma triggers, such as pollen and dust mites. Anti-IgE might be used if other asthma medicines have not worked well. A rare, but possibly life-threatening allergic reaction called anaphylaxis might occur when the Omalizumab injection is given. If you take this medication, work with your doctor to make sure you understand the signs and symptoms of anaphylaxis and what actions you should take. Inhaled long-acting beta2-agonists. These medicines open the airways. They might be added to inhaled corticosteroids to improve asthma control. Inhaled long-acting beta2-agonists should never be used on their own for long-term asthma control. They must used with inhaled corticosteroids. Leukotriene modifiers. These medicines are taken by mouth. They help block the chain reaction that increases inflammation in your airways. Theophylline. This medicine is taken by mouth. Theophylline helps open the airways. If your doctor prescribes a long-term control medicine, take it every day to control your asthma. Your asthma symptoms will likely return or get worse if you stop taking your medicine. Long-term control medicines can have side effects. Talk with your doctor about these side effects and ways to reduce or avoid them. With some medicines, like theophylline, your doctor will check the level of medicine in your blood. This helps ensure that youre getting enough medicine to relieve your asthma symptoms, but not so much that it causes dangerous side effects. Quick-Relief Medicines All people who have asthma need quick-relief medicines to help relieve asthma symptoms that may flare up. Inhaled short-acting beta2-agonists are the first choice for quick relief. These medicines act quickly to relax tight muscles around your airways when you're having a flareup. This allows the airways to open up so air can flow through them. You should take your quick-relief medicine when you first notice asthma symptoms. If you use this medicine more than 2 days a week, talk with your doctor about your asthma control. You may need to make changes to your asthma action plan. Carry your quick-relief inhaler with you at all times in case you need it. If your child has asthma, make sure that anyone caring for him or her has the child's quick-relief medicines, including staff at the child's school. They should understand when and how to use these medicines and when to seek medical care for your child. You shouldn't use quick-relief medicines in place of prescribed long-term control medicines. Quick-relief medicines don't reduce inflammation. Track Your Asthma To track your asthma, keep records of your symptoms, check your peak flow number using a peak flow meter, and get regular asthma checkups. Record Your Symptoms You can record your asthma symptoms in a diary to see how well your treatments are controlling your asthma. Asthma is well controlled if: You have symptoms no more than 2 days a week, and these symptoms don't wake you from sleep more than 1 or 2 nights a month. You can do all your normal activities. You take quick-relief medicines no more than 2 days a week. You have no more than one asthma attack a year that requires you to take corticosteroids by mouth. Your peak flow doesn't drop below 80 percent of your personal best number. If your asthma isn't well controlled, contact your doctor. He or she may need to change your asthma action plan. Use a Peak Flow Meter This small, hand-held device shows how well air moves out of your lungs. You blow into the device and it gives you a score, or peak flow number. Your score shows how well your lungs are working at the time of the test. Your doctor will tell you how and when to use your peak flow meter. He or she also will teach you how to take your medicines based on your score. Your doctor and other health care providers may ask you to use your peak flow meter each morning and keep a record of your results. You may find it very useful to record peak flow scores for a couple of weeks before each medical visit and take the results with you. When you're first diagnosed with asthma, it's important to find your "personal best" peak flow number. To do this, you record your score each day for a 2- to 3-week period when your asthma is well-controlled. The highest number you get during that time is your personal best. You can compare this number to future numbers to make sure your asthma is controlled. Your peak flow meter can help warn you of an asthma attack, even before you notice symptoms. If your score shows that your breathing is getting worse, you should take your quick-relief medicines the way your asthma action plan directs. Then you can use the peak flow meter to check how well the medicine worked. Get Asthma Checkups When you first begin treatment, you'll see your doctor about every 2 to 6 weeks. Once your asthma is controlled, your doctor may want to see you from once a month to twice a year. During these checkups, your doctor may ask whether you've had an asthma attack since the last visit or any changes in symptoms or peak flow measurements. He or she also may ask about your daily activities. This information will help your doctor assess your level of asthma control. Your doctor also may ask whether you have any problems or concerns with taking your medicines or following your asthma action plan. Based on your answers to these questions, your doctor may change the dose of your medicine or give you a new medicine. If your control is very good, you might be able to take less medicine. The goal is to use the least amount of medicine needed to control your asthma. Emergency Care Most people who have asthma, including many children, can safely manage their symptoms by following their asthma action plans. However, you might need medical attention at times. Call your doctor for advice if: Your medicines don't relieve an asthma attack. Your peak flow is less than half of your personal best peak flow number. Call 911 for emergency care if: You have trouble walking and talking because you're out of breath. You have blue lips or fingernails. At the hospital, you'll be closely watched and given oxygen and more medicines, as well as medicines at higher doses than you take at home. Such treatment can save your life. Asthma Treatment for Special Groups The treatments described above generally apply to all people who have asthma. However, some aspects of treatment differ for people in certain age groups and those who have special needs. Children It's hard to diagnose asthma in children younger than 5 years. Thus, it's hard to know whether young children who wheeze or have other asthma symptoms will benefit from long-term control medicines. (Quick-relief medicines tend to relieve wheezing in young children whether they have asthma or not.) Doctors will treat infants and young children who have asthma symptoms with long-term control medicines if, after assessing a child, they feel that the symptoms are persistent and likely to continue after 6 years of age. (For more information, go to "How Is Asthma Diagnosed?") Inhaled corticosteroids are the preferred treatment for young children. Montelukast and cromolyn are other options. Treatment might be given for a trial period of 1month to 6 weeks. Treatment usually is stopped if benefits aren't seen during that time and the doctor and parents are confident the medicine was used properly. Inhaled corticosteroids can possibly slow the growth of children of all ages. Slowed growth usually is apparent in the first several months of treatment, is generally small, and doesn't get worse over time. Poorly controlled asthma also may reduce a child's growth rate. Many experts think the benefits of inhaled corticosteroids for children who need them to control their asthma far outweigh the risk of slowed growth. Older Adults Doctors may need to adjust asthma treatment for older adults who take certain other medicines, such as beta blockers, aspirin and other pain relievers, and anti-inflammatory medicines. These medicines can prevent asthma medicines from working well and may worsen asthma symptoms. Be sure to tell your doctor about all of the medicines you take, including over-the-counter medicines. Older adults may develop weak bones from using inhaled corticosteroids, especially at high doses. Talk with your doctor about taking calcium and vitamin D pills, as well as other ways to help keep your bones strong. Pregnant Women Pregnant women who have asthma need to control the disease to ensure a good supply of oxygen to their babies. Poor asthma control increases the risk of preeclampsia, a condition in which a pregnant woman develops high blood pressure and protein in the urine. Poor asthma control also increases the risk that a baby will be born early and have a low birth weight. Studies show that it's safer to take asthma medicines while pregnant than to risk having an asthma attack. Talk with your doctor if you have asthma and are pregnant or planning a pregnancy. Your level of asthma control may get better or it may get worse while you're pregnant. Your health care team will check your asthma control often and adjust your treatment as needed. People Whose Asthma Symptoms Occur With Physical Activity Physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle. Adults need physical activity to maintain good health. Children need it for growth and development. In some people, however, physical activity can trigger asthma symptoms. If this happens to you or your child, talk with your doctor about the best ways to control asthma so you can stay active. The following medicines may help prevent asthma symptoms caused by physical activity: Short-acting beta2-agonists (quick-relief medicine) taken shortly before physical activity can last 2 to 3 hours and prevent exercise-related symptoms in most people who take them. Long-acting beta2-agonists can be protective for up to 12 hours. However, with daily use, they'll no longer give up to 12 hours of protection. Also, frequent use of these medicines for physical activity might be a sign that asthma is poorly controlled. Leukotriene modifiers. These pills are taken several hours before physical activity. They can help relieve asthma symptoms brought on by physical activity. Long-term control medicines. Frequent or severe symptoms due to physical activity may suggest poorly controlled asthma and the need to either start or increase long-term control medicines that reduce inflammation. This will help prevent exercise-related symptoms. Easing into physical activity with a warmup period may be helpful. You also may want to wear a mask or scarf over your mouth when exercising in cold weather. If you use your asthma medicines as your doctor directs, you should be able to take part in any physical activity or sport you choose. People Having Surgery Asthma may add to the risk of having problems during and after surgery. For instance, having a tube put into your throat may cause an asthma attack. Tell your surgeon about your asthma when you first talk with him or her. The surgeon can take steps to lower your risk, such as giving you asthma medicines before or during surgery.

What are the treatments for Heart Valve Disease ?

Currently, no medicines can cure heart valve disease. However, lifestyle changes and medicines often can treat symptoms successfully and delay problems for many years. Eventually, though, you may need surgery to repair or replace a faulty heart valve. The goals of treating heart valve disease might include: Medicines Repairing or replacing faulty valves Lifestyle changes to treat other related heart conditions Medicines In addition to heart-healthy lifestyle changes, your doctor may prescribe medicines to: Lower high blood pressure or high blood cholesterol. Prevent arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats). Thin the blood and prevent clots (if you have a man-made replacement valve). Doctors also prescribe these medicines for mitral stenosis or other valve defects that raise the risk of blood clots. Treat coronary heart disease. Medicines for coronary heart disease can reduce your hearts workload and relieve symptoms. Treatheart failure. Heart failure medicines widen blood vessels and rid the body of excess fluid. Repairing or Replacing Heart Valves Your doctor may recommend repairing or replacing your heart valve(s), even if your heart valve disease isnt causing symptoms. Repairing or replacing a valve can prevent lasting damage to your heart and sudden death. The decision to repair or replace heart valves depends on many factors, including: The severity of your valve disease Whether you need heart surgery for other conditions, such as bypass surgery to treat coronary heart disease. Bypass surgery and valve surgery can be performed at the sametime. Your age and general health When possible, heart valve repair is preferred over heart valve replacement. Valve repair preserves the strength and function of the heart muscle. People who have valve repair also have a lower risk of infective endocarditis after the surgery, and they dont need to take blood-thinning medicines for the rest of their lives. However, heart valve repair surgery is harder to do than valve replacement. Also, not all valves can be repaired. Mitral valves often can be repaired. Aortic and pulmonary valves often have to be replaced. Repairing Heart Valves Heart surgeons can repair heart valves by: Adding tissue to patch holes or tears or to increase the support at the base of the valve Removing or reshaping tissue so the valve can close tighter Separating fused valve flaps Sometimes cardiologists repair heart valves using cardiac catheterization. Although catheter procedures are less invasive than surgery, they may not work as well for some patients. Work with your doctor to decide whether repair is appropriate. If so, your doctor can advise you on the best procedure. Heart valves that cannot open fully (stenosis) can be repaired with surgery or with a less invasive catheter procedure called balloon valvuloplasty. This procedure also is called balloonvalvotomy. During the procedure, a catheter (thin tube) with a balloon at its tip is threaded through a blood vessel to the faulty valve in your heart. The balloon is inflated to help widen the opening of the valve. Your doctor then deflates the balloon and removes both it and the tube. Youre awake during the procedure, which usually requires an overnight stay in a hospital. Balloon valvuloplasty relieves many symptoms of heart valve disease, but may not cure it. The condition can worsen over time. You still may need medicines to treat symptoms or surgery to repair or replace the faulty valve. Balloon valvuloplasty has a shorter recovery time than surgery. The procedure may work as well as surgery for some patients who have mitral valve stenosis. For these people, balloon valvuloplasty often is preferred over surgical repair or replacement. Balloon valvuloplasty doesnt work as well as surgery for adults who have aortic valve stenosis. Doctors often use balloon valvuloplasty to repair valve stenosis in infants and children. Replacing Heart Valves Sometimes heart valves cant be repaired and must be replaced. This surgery involves removing the faulty valve and replacing it with a man-made or biological valve. Biological valves are made from pig, cow, or human heart tissue and may have man-made parts as well. These valves are specially treated, so you wont need medicines to stop your body from rejecting the valve. Man-made valves last longer than biological valves and usually dont have to be replaced. Biological valves usually have to be replaced after about 10 years, although newer ones may last 15years or longer. Unlike biological valves, however, man-made valves require you to take blood-thinning medicines for the rest of your life. These medicines prevent blood clots from forming on the valve. Blood clots can cause a heart attack or stroke. Man-made valves also raise your risk of infective endocarditis. You and your doctor will decide together whether you should have a man-made or biological replacement valve. If youre a woman of childbearing age or if youre athletic, you may prefer a biological valve so you dont have to take blood-thinning medicines. If youre elderly, you also may prefer a biological valve, as it will likely last for the rest of your life. Ross Procedure Doctors also can treat faulty aortic valves with the Ross procedure. During this surgery, your doctor removes your faulty aortic valve and replaces it with your pulmonary valve. Your pulmonary valve is then replaced with a pulmonary valve from a deceased humandonor. This is more involved surgery than typical valve replacement, and it has a greater risk of complications. The Ross procedure may be especially useful for children because the surgically replaced valves continue to grow with the child. Also, lifelong treatment with blood-thinning medicines isnt required. But in some patients, one or both valves fail to work well within a few years of the surgery. Researchers continue to study the use of this procedure. Other Approaches for Repairing and Replacing Heart Valves Some forms of heart valve repair and replacement surgery are less invasive than traditional surgery. These procedures use smaller incisions (cuts) to reach the heart valves. Hospital stays for these newer types of surgery usually are 3 to 5 days, compared with a 5-day stay for traditional heart valve surgery. New surgeries tend to cause less pain and have a lower risk of infection. Recovery time also tends to be shorter2to 4weeks versus 6to 8weeks for traditional surgery. Transcatheter Valve Therapy Interventional cardiologists perform procedures that involve threading clips or other devices to repair faulty heart valves using a catheter (tube) inserted through a large blood vessel. The clips or devices are used to reshape the valves and stop the backflow of blood. People who receive these clips recover more easily than people who have surgery. However, the clips may not treat backflow as well as surgery. Doctors also may use a catheter to replace faulty aortic valves. This procedure is called transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR). For this procedure, the catheter usually is inserted into an artery in the groin (upper thigh) and threaded to the heart. A deflated balloon with a folded replacement valve around it is at the end of the catheter. Once the replacement valve is placed properly, the balloon is used to expand the new valve so it fits securely within the old valve. The balloon is then deflated, and the balloon and catheter are removed. A replacement valve also can be inserted in an existing replacement valve that is failing. This is called a valve-in-valve procedure. Lifestyle Changes to Treat Other Related Heart To help treat heart conditions related to heart valve disease, your doctor may advise you to make heart-healthy lifestyle changes, such as: Heart-healthy eating Maintaining a healthy weight Managing stress Physical activity Quitting smoking Heart-Healthy Eating Your doctor may recommend heart-healthy eating, which should include: Fat-free or low-fat dairy products, such as skim milk Fish high in omega-3 fatty acids, such as salmon, tuna, and trout, about twice a week Fruits, such as apples, bananas, oranges, pears, and prunes Legumes, such as kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and lima beans Vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and carrots Whole grains, such as oatmeal, brown rice, and corn tortillas When following a heart-healthy diet, you should avoid eating: A lot of red meat Palm and coconut oils Sugary foods and beverages Two nutrients in your diet make blood cholesterol levels rise: Saturated fatfound mostly in foods that come from animals Trans fat (trans fatty acids)found in foods made with hydrogenated oils and fats, such as stick margarine; baked goods, such as cookies, cakes, and pies; crackers; frostings; and coffee creamers. Some trans fats also occur naturally in animal fats and meats. Saturated fat raises your blood cholesterol more than anything else in your diet. When you follow a heart-healthy eating plan, only 5percent to 6percent of your daily calories should come from saturated fat. Food labels list the amounts of saturated fat. To help you stay on track, here are some examples: AvocadosNot all fats are bad. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats actually help lower blood cholesterol levels. Some sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are: Corn, sunflower, and soybean oils Nuts and seeds, such as walnuts Olive, canola, peanut, safflower, and sesame oils Peanut butter Salmon and trout Tofu Sodium You should try to limit the amount of sodium that you eat. This means choosing and preparing foods that are lower in salt and sodium. Try to use low-sodium and no added salt foods and seasonings at the table or while cooking. Food labels tell you what you need to know about choosing foods that are lower in sodium. Try to eat no more than 2,300milligrams of sodium a day. If you have high blood pressure, you may need to restrict your sodium intake even more. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension Your doctor may recommend the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan if you have high blood pressure. The DASH eating plan focuses on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that are heart healthy and low in fat, cholesterol, and sodium and salt. The DASH eating plan is a good heart-healthy eating plan, even for those who dont have high blood pressure. Read more about DASH. Alcohol Try to limit alcohol intake. Too much alcohol can raise your blood pressure and triglyceride levels, a type of fat found in the blood. Alcohol also adds extra calories, which may cause weightgain. Men should have no more than two drinks containing alcohol a day. Women should have no more than one drink containing alcohol a day. One drink is: 12 ounces of beer 5 ounces of wine 1 ounces of liquor Maintaining a Healthy Weight Maintaining a healthy weight is important for overall health and can lower your risk for heart valve disease. Aim for a Healthy Weight by following a heart-healthy eating plan and keeping physically active. Knowing your body mass index (BMI) helps you find out if youre a healthy weight in relation to your height and gives an estimate of your total body fat. To figure out your BMI, check out the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutes online BMI calculator or talk to your doctor. A BMI: Below 18.5 is a sign that you are underweight. Between 18.5 and 24.9 is in the normal range. Between 25.0 and 29.9 is considered overweight. Of 30.0 or higher is considered obese. A general goal to aim for is a BMI of less than 25. Your doctor or health care provider can help you set an appropriate BMI goal. Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, youre at a higher risk for heart disease and type2 diabetes. This risk may be higher with a waist size that is greater than 35 inches for women or greater than 40 inches for men. To learn how to measure your waist, visit Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk. If youre overweight or obese, try to lose weight. A loss of just 3 percent to 5 percent of your current weight can lower your triglycerides, blood glucose, and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Greater amounts of weight loss can improve blood pressure readings, lower LDL cholesterol, and increase HDL cholesterol. Managing Stress Learning how to manage stress, relax, and cope with problems can improve your emotional and physical health. Consider healthy stress-reducing activities, such as: A stress management program Meditation Physical activity Relaxation therapy Talking things out with friends or family Physical Activity Regular physical activity can lower many heart valve disease risk factors. Everyone should try to participate in moderate-intensity aerobic exercise at least 2hours and 30minutes per week or vigorous aerobic exercise for 1hour and 15minutes per week. Aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking, is any exercise in which your heart beats faster and you use more oxygen than usual. The more active you are, the more you will benefit. Participate in aerobic exercise for at least 10minutes at a time spread throughout the week. Talk with your doctor before you start a new exercise plan. Ask your doctor how much and what kinds of physical activity are safe for you. Read more about physical activity at: Physical Activity and Your Heart U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Quitting Smoking If you smoke or use tobacco, quit. Smoking can damage and tighten blood vessels and raise your risk for atherosclerosis and other health problems. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. If you have trouble quitting smoking on your own, consider joining a support group. Many hospitals, workplaces, and community groups offer classes to help people quit smoking. For more information about how to quit smoking, visit the Smoking and Your Heart Health Topic.

What are the symptoms of Ehrlichiosis ?

Symptoms In the United States, the term “ehrlichiosis” may be broadly applied to several different infections. Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingii are transmitted by the lonestar tick in the southeastern and southcentral United States. In addition, a third Ehrlichia species provisionally called Ehrlichia muris-like (EML) has been identified in a small number of patients residing in or traveling to Minnesota and Wisconsin; a tick vector for the EML organism has not yet been established. The symptoms caused by infection with these Ehrlichia species usually develop 1-2 weeks after being bitten by an infected tick. The tick bite is usually painless, and about half of the people who develop ehrlichiosis may not even remember being bitten by a tick. The following is a list of symptoms commonly seen with this disease, however, it is important to note that the combination of symptoms varies greatly from person to person. - Fever - Headache - Chills - Malaise - Muscle pain - Nausea / Vomiting / Diarrhea - Confusion - Conjunctival injection (red eyes) - Rash (in up to 60% of children, less than 30% of adults) Ehrlichiosis is a serious illness that can be fatal if not treated correctly, even in previously healthy people. Severe clinical presentations may include difficulty breathing, or bleeding disorders. The estimated case fatality rate (i.e. the proportion of persons who die as a result of their infection) is 1.8%. Patients who are treated early may recover quickly on outpatient medication, while those who experience a more severe course may require intravenous antibiotics, prolonged hospitalization or intensive care. Rash Skin rash is not considered a common feature of ehrlichiosis, and should not be used to rule in or rule out an infection. Ehrlichia chaffeensis infection can cause a rash in up to 60% of children, but is reported in fewer than 30% of adults. Rash is not commonly reported in patients infected with Ehrlichia ewingii or the Ehrlichia muris-like organism. The rash associated with Ehrlichia chaffeensis infection may range from maculopapular to petechial in nature, and is usually not pruritic (itchy). The rash usually spares the face, but in some cases may spread to the palms and soles. A type of rash called erythroderma may develop in some patients. Erythroderma is a type of rash that resembles a sunburn and consists of widespread reddening of the skin that may peel after several days. Some patients may develop a rash that resembles the rash of Rocky Mountain spotted fever making these two diseases difficult to differentiate on the basis of clinical signs alone. Immune-compromised Individuals The severity of ehrlichiosis may depend in part on the immune status of the patient. Persons with compromised immunity caused by immunosuppressive therapies (e.g., corticosteroids , cancer chemotherapy, or longterm immunosuppressive therapy following organ transplant), HIV infection, or splenectomy appear to develop more severe disease, and may also have higher case-fatality rates (i.e. the proportion of patients that die from infection.) Blood Transfusion and Organ Transplant Risks Associated with Ehrlichia species Because Ehrlichia organisms infect the white blood cells and circulate in the blood stream, these pathogens may pose a risk to be transmitted through blood transfusions. Ehrlichia chaffeensis has been shown to survive for more than a week in refrigerated blood. Several instances of suspected E. chaffeensis transmission through solid organ transplant have been investigated, although to date no cases have been confirmed that can be attributed to this route of transmission. Patients who develop ehrlichiosis within a month of receiving a blood transfusion or solid organ transplant should be reported to state health officials for prompt investigation. Use of leukoreduced blood products may theoretically decrease the risk of transfusion-associated transmission of these pathogens. However, the filtration process does not remove all leukocytes or bacteria not associated with leukocytes from leukoreduced blood; therefore, this process may not eliminate the risk completely. For more in-depth information about signs and symptoms of ehrlichiosis, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Diagnosis The diagnosis of ehrlichiosis must be made based on clinical signs and symptoms, and can later be confirmed using specialized confirmatory laboratory tests. Treatment should never be delayed pending the receipt of laboratory test results, or be withheld on the basis of an initial negative laboratory result. Physician Diagnosis There are several aspects of ehrlichiosis that make it challenging for healthcare providers to diagnose and treat. The symptoms vary from patient to patient and can be difficult to distinguish from other diseases. Treatment is more likely to be effective if started early in the course of disease. Diagnostic tests based on the detection of antibodies will frequently be negative in the first 7-10 days of illness. For this reason, healthcare providers must use their judgment to treat patients based on clinical suspicion alone. Healthcare providers may find important information in the patient’s history and physical examination that may aid clinical suspicion. Information such as recent tick bites, exposure to areas where ticks are likely to be found, or history of recent travel to areas where ehrlichiosis is endemic can be helpful in making the diagnosis. The healthcare provider should also look at routine blood tests, such as a complete blood cell count or a chemistry panel. Clues such as a low platelet count (thrombocytopenia), low white blood cell count (leukopenia), or elevated liver enzyme levels are helpful predictors of ehrlichiosis, but may not be present in all patients depending on the course of the disease. After a suspect diagnosis is made on clinical suspicion and treatment has begun, specialized laboratory testing should be used to confirm the diagnosis of ehrlichiosis. Laboratory Detection During the acute phase of illness, a sample of whole blood can be tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to determine if a patient has ehrlichiosis. This method is most sensitive in the first week of illness, and quickly decreases in sensitivity following the administration of appropriate antibiotics. Although a positive PCR result is helpful, a negative result does not completely rule out the diagnosis. During the first week of illness a microscopic examination of blood smears (known as a peripheral blood smear) may reveal morulae (microcolonies of ehrlichiae) in the cytoplasm of white blood cells in up to 20% of patients. The type of blood cell in which morulae are observed may provide insight into the infecting species: E. chaffeensis most commonly infects monocytes, whereas E. ewingii more commonly infect granulocytes. However, the observance of morulae in a particular cell type cannot conclusively identify the infecting species. Culture isolation of Ehrlichia is only available at specialized laboratories; routine hospital blood cultures cannot detect Ehrlichia. When a person develops ehrlichiosis, their immune system produces antibodies to the Ehrlichia, with detectable antibody titers usually observed by 7-10 days after illness onset. It is important to note that antibodies are not detectable in the first week of illness in 85% of patients, and a negative test during this time does not rule out ehrlichiosis as a cause of illness. The gold standard serologic test for diagnosis of ehrlichiosis is the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using E. chaffeensis antigen, performed on paired serum samples to demonstrate a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titers. The first sample should be taken as early in the disease as possible, preferably in the first week of symptoms, and the second sample should be taken 2 to 4 weeks later. In most cases of ehrlichiosis, the first IgG IFA titer is typically low, or “negative,” and the second typically shows a significant (four-fold) increase in IgG antibody levels. IgM antibodies usually rise at the same time as IgG near the end of the first week of illness and remain elevated for months or longer. Also, IgM antibodies are less specific than IgG antibodies and more likely to result in a false positive. For these reasons, physicians requesting IgM serologic titers should also request a concurrent IgG titer. Serologic tests based on enzyme immunoassay (EIA) technology are available from some commercial laboratories. However, EIA tests are qualitative rather than quantitative, meaning they only provide a positive/negative result, and are less useful to measure changes in antibody titers between paired specimens. Furthermore, some EIA assays rely on the evaluation of IgM antibody alone, which may have a higher frequency of false positive results. Antibodies to E. chaffeensis may remain elevated for months or longer after the disease has resolved, or may be detected in persons who were previously exposed to antigenically related organisms. Up to 12% of currently healthy people in some areas may have elevated antibody titers due to past exposure to Ehrlichia species or similar organisms. Therefore, if only one sample is tested it can be difficult to interpret, while paired samples taken weeks apart demonstrating a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titer provides the best evidence for a correct diagnosis of ehrlichiosis. For more in-depth information about the diagnosis of ehrlichiosis, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Treatment Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages and should be initiated immediately whenever ehrlichiosis is suspected. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline and other tetracyclines is associated with a higher risk of fatal outcome for some rickettsial infections. Doxycycline is most effective at preventing severe complications from developing if it is started early in the course of disease. Therefore, treatment must be based on clinical suspicion alone and should always begin before laboratory results return. If the patient is treated within the first 5 days of the disease, fever generally subsides within 24-72 hours. In fact, failure to respond to doxycycline suggests that the patient’s condition might not be due to ehrlichiosis. Severely ill patients may require longer periods before their fever resolves. Resistance to doxcycline or relapses in symptoms after the completion of the recommended course have not been documented. Recommended Dosage Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages: - Adults: 100 mg every 12 hours - Children under 45 kg (100 lbs): 2.2 mg/kg body weight given twice a day Patients should be treated for at least 3 days after the fever subsides and until there is evidence of clinical improvement. Standard duration of treatment is 7 to 14 days. Some patients may continue to experience headache, weakness and malaise for weeks after adequate treatment. Treating children The use of doxycycline to treat suspected ehrlichiosis in children is standard practice recommended by both CDC and the AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases. Unlike older generations of tetracyclines, the recommended dose and duration of medication needed to treat ehrlichiosis has not been shown to cause staining of permanent teeth, even when five courses are given before the age of eight. Healthcare providers should use doxycycline as the first-line treatment for suspected ehrlichiosis in patients of all ages. Other Treatments In cases of life threatening allergies to doxycycline and in some pregnant patients for whom the clinical course of ehrlichiosis appears mild, physicians may need to consider alternate antibiotics. Although recommended as a second-line therapeutic alternative to treat Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF), chloramphenicol is not recommended for the treatment of either ehrlichiosis or anaplasmosis, as studies have shown a lack of efficacy. Rifampin appears effective against Ehrlichia in laboratory settings. However, rifampin is not effective in treating RMSF, a disease that may be confused with ehrlichiosis. Healthcare providers should be cautious when exploring treatments other than doxycycline, which is highly effective in treating both. Other antibiotics, including broad spectrum antibiotics are not considered highly effective against ehrlichiosis, and the use of sulfa drugs during acute illness may worsen the severity of infection. Prophylaxis (Preventive Treatment) Antibiotic treatment following a tick bite is not recommended as a means to prevent ehrlichiosis. There is no evidence this practice is effective, and this may simply delay onset of disease. Instead, persons who experience a tick bite should be alert for symptoms suggestive of tickborne illness and consult a physician if fever, rash, or other symptoms of concern develop. For more in-depth information about treatment, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Other Considerations The clinical presentation for ehrlichiosis can resemble other tickborne diseases, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever and anaplasmosis. Similar to ehrlichiosis, these infections respond well to treatment with doxycycline. Healthcare providers should order diagnostic tests for additional agents if the clinical history and geographic association warrant. For more in-depth about other similar tickborne diseases, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm

What are the treatments for Stroke ?

Treatment for a stroke depends on whether it is ischemic or hemorrhagic. Treatment for a transient ischemic attack (TIA) depends on its cause, how much time has passed since symptoms began, and whether you have other medical conditions. Strokes and TIAs are medical emergencies. If you have stroke symptoms, call 911 right away. Do not drive to the hospital or let someone else drive you. Call an ambulance so that medical personnel can begin lifesaving treatment on the way to the emergency room. During a stroke, every minute counts. Once you receive immediate treatment, your doctor will try to treat your stroke risk factors and prevent complications by recommending heart-healthy lifestyle changes. Treating an Ischemic Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attack An ischemic stroke or TIA occurs if an artery that supplies oxygen-rich blood to the brain becomes blocked. Often, blood clots cause the blockages that lead to ischemic strokes and TIAs. Treatment for an ischemic stroke or TIA may include medicines and medical procedures. Medicines If you have a stroke caused by a blood clot, you may be given a clot-dissolving, or clot-busting, medication called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA). A doctor will inject tPA into a vein in your arm. This type of medication must be given within 4hours of symptom onset. Ideally, it should be given as soon as possible. The sooner treatment begins, the better your chances of recovery. Thus, its important to know the signs and symptoms of a stroke and to call 911 right away for emergency care. If you cant have tPA for medical reasons, your doctor may give you antiplatelet medicine that helps stop platelets from clumping together to form blood clots or anticoagulant medicine (blood thinner) that keeps existing blood clots from getting larger. Two common medicines are aspirin and clopidogrel. Medical Procedures If you have carotid artery disease, your doctor may recommend a carotid endarterectomy or carotid arteryangioplasty. Both procedures open blocked carotid arteries. Researchers are testing other treatments for ischemic stroke, such as intra-arterial thrombolysis and mechanical clot removal in cerebral ischemia (MERCI). In intra-arterial thrombolysis, a long flexible tube called a catheter is put into your groin (upper thigh) and threaded to the tiny arteries of the brain. Your doctor can deliver medicine through this catheter to break up a blood clot in the brain. MERCI is a device that can remove blood clots from an artery. During the procedure, a catheter is threaded through a carotid artery to the affected artery in the brain. The device is then used to pull the blood clot out through the catheter. Treating a Hemorrhagic Stroke A hemorrhagic stroke occurs if an artery in the brain leaks blood or ruptures. The first steps in treating a hemorrhagic stroke are to find the cause of bleeding in the brain and then control it. Unlike ischemic strokes, hemorrhagic strokes arent treated with antiplatelet medicines and blood thinners because these medicines can make bleeding worse. If youre taking antiplatelet medicines or blood thinners and have a hemorrhagic stroke, youll be taken off the medicine. If high blood pressure is the cause of bleeding in the brain, your doctor may prescribe medicines to lower your blood pressure. This can help prevent further bleeding. Surgery also may be needed to treat a hemorrhagic stroke. The types of surgery used include aneurysm clipping, coil embolization, and arteriovenous malformation (AVM) repair. Aneurysm Clipping and Coil Embolization If an aneurysm (a balloon-like bulge in an artery) is the cause of a stroke, your doctor may recommend aneurysm clipping or coil embolization. Aneurysm clipping is done to block off the aneurysm from the blood vessels in the brain. This surgery helps prevent further leaking of blood from the aneurysm. It also can help prevent the aneurysm from bursting again.During the procedure, a surgeon will make an incision (cut) in the brain and place a tiny clamp at the base of the aneurysm. Youll be given medicine to make you sleep during the surgery. After the surgery, youll need to stay in the hospitals intensive care unit for a few days. Coil embolization is a less complex procedure for treating an aneurysm. The surgeon will insert a tube called a catheter into an artery in the groin. He or she will thread the tube to the site of the aneurysm.Then, a tiny coil will be pushed through the tube and into the aneurysm. The coil will cause a blood clot to form, which will block blood flow through the aneurysm and prevent it from burstingagain.Coil embolization is done in a hospital. Youll be given medicine to make you sleep during thesurgery. Arteriovenous Malformation Repair If an AVM is the cause of a stroke, your doctor may recommend an AVM repair. (An AVM is a tangle of faulty arteries and veins that can rupture within the brain.) AVM repair helps prevent further bleeding in the brain. Doctors use several methods to repair AVMs. These methods include: Injecting a substance into the blood vessels of the AVM to block blood flow Surgery to remove the AVM Using radiation to shrink the blood vessels of the AVM Treating Stroke Risk Factors After initial treatment for a stroke or TIA, your doctor will treat your risk factors. He or she may recommend heart-healthy lifestyle changes to help control your risk factors. Heart-healthy lifestyle changes may include: heart-healthy eating maintaining a healthy weight managing stress physical activity quitting smoking If lifestyle changes arent enough, you may need medicine to control your risk factors. Heart-Healthy Eating Your doctor may recommend heart-healthy eating, which should include: Fat-free or low-fat dairy products, such as skim milk Fish high in omega-3 fatty acids, such as salmon, tuna, and trout, about twice a week Fruits, such as apples, bananas, oranges, pears, and prunes Legumes, such as kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and lima beans Vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and carrots Whole grains, such as oatmeal, brown rice, and corn tortillas When following a heart-healthy diet, you should avoid eating: A lot of red meat Palm and coconut oils Sugary foods and beverages Two nutrients in your diet make blood cholesterol levels rise: Saturated fatfound mostly in foods that come from animals Trans fat (trans fatty acids)found in foods made with hydrogenated oils and fats, such as stick margarine; baked goods, such as cookies, cakes, and pies; crackers; frostings; and coffee creamers. Some trans fats also occur naturally in animal fats and meats. Saturated fat raises your blood cholesterol more than anything else in your diet. When you follow a heart-healthy eating plan, only 5percent to 6percent of your daily calories should come from saturated fat. Food labels list the amounts of saturated fat. To help you stay on track, here are some examples: 1,200 calories a day 8 grams of saturated fat a day 1,500 calories a day 10 grams of saturated fat a day 1,800 calories a day 12 grams of saturated fat a day 2,000 calories a day 13 grams of saturated fat a day 2,500 calories a day 17 grams of saturated fat a day Not all fats are bad. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats actually help lower blood cholesterol levels. Some sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are: Avocados Corn, sunflower, and soybean oils Nuts and seeds, such as walnuts Olive, canola, peanut, safflower, and sesame oils Peanut butter Salmon and trout Tofu Sodium Try to limit the amount of sodium that you eat. This means choosing and preparing foods that are lower in salt and sodium. Try to use low-sodium and no added salt foods and seasonings at the table or while cooking. Food labels tell you what you need to know about choosing foods that are lower in sodium. Try to eat no more than 2,300 milligrams of sodium a day. If you have high blood pressure, you may need to restrict your sodium intake even more. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension Your doctor may recommend the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan if you have high blood pressure. The DASH eating plan focuses on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that are heart healthy and low in fat, cholesterol, and sodium and salt. The DASH eating plan is a good heart-healthy eating plan, even for those who dont have high blood pressure. Read more about DASH. Alcohol Try to limit alcohol intake. Too much alcohol can raise your blood pressure and triglyceride levels, a type of fat found in the blood. Alcohol also adds extra calories, which may cause weight gain. Men should have no more than two drinks containing alcohol a day. Women should have no more than one drink containing alcohol a day. One drink is: 12 ounces of beer 5 ounces of wine 1 ounces of liquor Maintaining a Healthy Weight Maintaining a healthy weight is important for overall health and can lower your risk for stroke. Aim for a Healthy Weight by following a heart-healthy eating plan and keeping physically active. Knowing your body mass index (BMI) helps you find out if youre a healthy weight in relation to your height and gives an estimate of your total body fat. To figure out your BMI, check out the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutes (NHLBI) online BMI calculator or talk to your doctor. A BMI: Below 18.5 is a sign that you are underweight. Between 18.5 and 24.9 is in the normal range. Between 25.0 and 29.9 is considered overweight. Of 30.0 or higher is considered obese. A general goal to aim for is a BMI of less than 25. Your doctor or health care provider can help you set an appropriate BMI goal. Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, youre at a higher risk for heart disease and type2 diabetes. This risk may be high with a waist size that is greater than 35 inches for women or greater than 40 inches for men. To learn how to measure your waist, visit Assessing Your Weight and Health Risk. If youre overweight or obese, try to lose weight. A loss of just 3 percent to 5 percent of your current weight can lower your triglycerides, blood glucose, and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Greater amounts of weight loss can improve blood pressure readings, lower LDL cholesterol, and increase HDL cholesterol. Managing Stress Learning how to manage stress, relax, and cope with problems can improve your emotional and physical health. Consider healthy stress-reducing activities, such as: A stress management program Meditation Physical activity Relaxation therapy Talking things out with friends or family Physical Activity Regular physical activity can lower many risk factors for stroke. Everyone should try to participate in moderate-intensity aerobic exercise at least 2hours and 30minutes per week or vigorous aerobic exercise for 1hour and 15minutes per week. Aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking, is any exercise in which your heart beats faster and you use more oxygen than usual. The more active you are, the more you will benefit. Participate in aerobic exercise for at least 10minutes at a time spread throughout the week. Talk with your doctor before you start a new exercise plan. Ask your doctor how much and what kinds of physical activity are safe for you. Read more about physical activity at: Physical Activity and Your Heart U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Quitting Smoking If you smoke or use tobacco, quit. Smoking can damage and tighten blood vessels and raise your risk for stroke. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. If you have trouble quitting smoking on your own, consider joining a support group. Many hospitals, workplaces, and community groups offer classes to help people quit smoking. For more information about how to quit smoking, visit Smoking and Your Heart.

What are the symptoms of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) ?

The first symptoms of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) typically begin 2-14 days after the bite of an infected tick. A tick bite is usually painless and about half of the people who develop RMSF do not remember being bitten. The disease frequently begins as a sudden onset of fever and headache and most people visit a healthcare provider during the first few days of symptoms. Because early symptoms may be non-specific, several visits may occur before the diagnosis of RMSF is made and correct treatment begins. The following is a list of symptoms commonly seen with this disease, however, it is important to note that few people with the disease will develop all symptoms, and the number and combination of symptoms varies greatly from person to person. - Fever - Rash (occurs 2-5 days after fever, may be absent in some cases; see below) - Headache - Nausea - Vomiting - Abdominal pain (may mimic appendicitis or other causes of acute abdominal pain) - Muscle pain - Lack of appetite - Conjunctival injection (red eyes) RMSF is a serious illness that can be fatal in the first eight days of symptoms if not treated correctly, even in previously healthy people. The progression of the disease varies greatly. Patients who are treated early may recover quickly on outpatient medication, while those who experience a more severe course may require intravenous antibiotics, prolonged hospitalization or intensive care. Rash While most people with RMSF (90%) have some type of rash during the course of illness, some people do not develop the rash until late in the disease process, after treatment should have already begun. Approximately 10% of RMSF patients never develop a rash. It is important for physicians to consider RMSF if other signs and symptoms support a diagnosis, even if a rash is not present. A classic case of RMSF involves a rash that first appears 2-5 days after the onset of fever as small, flat, pink, non-itchy spots (macules) on the wrists, forearms, and ankles and spreads to include the trunk and sometimes the palms and soles. Often the rash varies from this description and people who fail to develop a rash, or develop an atypical rash, are at increased risk of being misdiagnosed. The red to purple, spotted (petechial) rash of RMSF is usually not seen until the sixth day or later after onset of symptoms and occurs in 35-60% of patients with the infection. This is a sign of progression to severe disease, and every attempt should be made to begin treatment before petechiae develop. Figure 1a and 1b: Examples of an early-stage rash in an RMSF patient. Long-term Health Problems Patients who had a particularly severe infection requiring prolonged hospitalization may have long-term health problems caused by this disease. Rickettsia rickettsii infects the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels. The damage that occurs in the blood vessels results in a disease process called a "vasculitis", and bleeding or clotting in the brain or other vital organs may occur. Loss of fluid from damaged vessels can result in loss of circulation to the extremities and damaged fingers, toes or even limbs may ultimately need to be amputated. Patients who suffer this kind of severe vasculitis in the first two weeks of illness may also be left with permanent long-term health problems such as profound neurological deficits, or damage to internal organs. Those who do not have this kind of vascular damage in the initial stages of the disease typically recover fully within several days to months. Infection in Children Children with RMSF infection may experience nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Children are less likely to report a headache, but more likely to develop an early rash than adults. Other frequently observed signs and symptoms in children with RMSF are abdominal pain, altered mental status, and conjunctival injection. Occasionally, symptoms like cough, sore throat, and diarrhea may be seen, and can lead to misdiagnosis. For more in-depth information about signs and symptoms of RMSF, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Physician Diagnosis There are several aspects of RMSF that make it challenging for healthcare providers to diagnose and treat. The symptoms of RMSF vary from patient to patient and can easily resemble other, more common diseases. Treatment for this disease is most effective at preventing death if started in the first five days of symptoms. Diagnostic tests for this disease, especially tests based on the detection of antibodies, will frequently appear negative in the first 7-10 days of illness. Due to the complexities of this disease and the limitations of currently available diagnostic tests, there is no test available at this time that can provide a conclusive result in time to make important decisions about treatment. For this reason, healthcare providers must use their judgment to treat patients based on clinical suspicion alone. Healthcare providers may find important information in the patient’s history and physical examination that may aid clinical suspicion. Information such as recent tick bites, exposure to high grass and tick-infested areas, contact with dogs, similar illnesses in family members or pets, or history of recent travel to areas of high incidence can be helpful in making the diagnosis. Also, information about the presence of symptoms such as fever and rash may be helpful. The healthcare provider may also look at routine blood tests, such as a complete blood cell count or a chemistry panel. Clues such as a low platelet count (thrombocytopenia), low sodium levels (hyponatremia), or elevated liver enzyme levels are often helpful predictors of RMSF but may not be present in all patients. After a suspect diagnosis is made on clinical suspicion and treatment has begun, specialized laboratory testing should be used to confirm the diagnosis of RMSF. Laboratory Confirmation R. rickettsii infects the endothelial cells that line blood vessels, and does not circulate in large numbers in the blood unless the patient has progressed to a very severe phase of infection. For this reason, blood specimens (whole blood, serum) are not always useful for detection of the organism through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or culture. If the patient has a rash, PCR or immunohistochemical (IHC) staining can be performed on a skin biopsy taken from the rash site. This test can often deliver a rapid result. These tests have good sensitivity (70%) when applied to tissue specimens collected during the acute phase of illness and before antibiotic treatment has been started, but a negative result should not be used to guide treatment decisions. PCR, culture, and IHC can also be applied to autopsy specimens (liver, spleen, kidney, etc) collected after a patient dies. Culture of R. rickettsii is only available at specialized laboratories; routine hospital blood cultures cannot detect R. rickettsii. During RMSF infection, a patient’s immune system develops antibodies to R. rickettsii, with detectable antibody titers usually observed by 7-10 days after illness onset. It is important to note that antibodies are not detectable in the first week of illness in 85% of patients, and a negative test during this time does not rule out RMSF as a cause of illness. The gold standard serologic test for diagnosis of RMSF is the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) with R. rickettsii antigen, performed on two paired serum samples to demonstrate a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titers. The first sample should be taken as early in the disease as possible, preferably in the first week of symptoms, and the second sample should be taken 2 to 4 weeks later. In most RMSF cases, the first IgG IFA titer is typically low or negative, and the second typically shows a significant (fourfold) increase in IgG antibody levels. IgM antibodies usually rise at the same time as IgG near the end of the first week of illness and remain elevated for months or even years. Also, IgM antibodies are less specific than IgG antibodies and more likely to result in a false positive. For these reasons, physicians requesting IgM serologic titers should also request a concurrent IgG titer. Both IgM and IgG levels may remain elevated for months or longer after the disease has resolved, or may be detected in persons who were previously exposed to antigenically related organisms. Up to 10% of currently healthy people in some areas may have elevated antibody titers due to past exposure to R. rickettsii or similar organisms. Therefore, if only one sample is tested it can be difficult to interpret, whereas two paired samples taken weeks apart demonstrating a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titer provide the best evidence for a correct diagnosis of RMSF. For more in-depth information about testing, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Treatment Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages and should be initiated immediately whenever RMSF is suspected. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline is associated with a higher risk of fatal outcome. Treatment is most effective at preventing death if doxycycline is started in the first 5 days of symptoms. Therefore, treatment must be based on clinical suspicion alone and should always begin before laboratory results return or symptoms of severe disease, such as petechiae, develop. If the patient is treated within the first 5 days of the disease, fever generally subsides within 24-72 hours. In fact, failure to respond to doxycycline suggests that the patient’s condition might not be RMSF. Severely ill patients may require longer periods before their fever resolves, especially if they have experienced damage to multiple organ systems. Resistance to doxcycline or relapses in symptoms after the completion of the recommended course of treatment have not been documented. Recommended Dosage Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages: - Adults: 100 mg every 12 hours - Children under 45 kg (100 lbs): 2.2 mg/kg body weight given twice a day Patients should be treated for at least 3 days after the fever subsides and until there is evidence of clinical improvement. Standard duration of treatment is 7-14 days. Treating Children The use of doxycycline to treat suspected RMSF in children is standard practice recommended by both CDC and the AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline increases the risk of patient death. Unlike older tetracyclines, the recommended dose and duration of medication needed to treat RMSF has not been shown to cause staining of permanent teeth, even when five courses are given before the age of eight. Healthcare providers should use doxycycline as the first-line treatment for suspected Rocky Mountain spotted fever in patients of all ages. Other Treatments In cases of life threatening allergies to doxycycline and in some pregnant patients for whom the clinical course of RMSF appears mild, chloramphenicol may be considered as an alternative antibiotic. Oral forumulations of chloramphenicol are not available in the United States, and use of this drug carries the potential for other adverse risks, such as aplastic anemia and Grey baby syndrome. Furthermore, the risk for fatal outcome is elevated in patients who are treated with chloramphenicol compared to those treated with doxycycline. Other antibiotics, including broad spectrum antibiotics are not effective against R. rickettsii, and the use of sulfa drugs may worsen infection. Prophylaxis (Preventive Treatment) Antibiotic treatment following a tick bite is not recommended as a means to prevent RMSF. There is no evidence this practice is effective, and may simply delay onset of disease. Instead, persons who experience a tick bite should be alert for symptoms suggestive of tickborne illness and consult a physician if fever, rash, or other symptoms of concern develop. For more in-depth information about treatment, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Other Considerations The clinical presentation for RMSF can also resemble other tickborne diseases, such as ehrlichiosis and anaplasmosis. Similar to RMSF, these infections respond well to treatment with doxycycline. Healthcare providers should order diagnostic tests for additional agents if the clinical history and geographic association warrant. For more in-depth about other similar tickborne diseases, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm

What causes Glomerular Diseases ?

A number of different diseases can result in glomerular disease. It may be the direct result of an infection or a drug toxic to the kidneys, or it may result from a disease that affects the entire body, like diabetes or lupus. Many different kinds of diseases can cause swelling or scarring of the nephron or glomerulus. Sometimes glomerular disease is idiopathic, meaning that it occurs without an apparent associated disease. The categories presented below can overlap: that is, a disease might belong to two or more of the categories. For example, diabetic nephropathy is a form of glomerular disease that can be placed in two categories: systemic diseases, since diabetes itself is a systemic disease, and sclerotic diseases, because the specific damage done to the kidneys is associated with scarring. Autoimmune Diseases When the body's immune system functions properly, it creates protein-like substances called antibodies and immunoglobulins to protect the body against invading organisms. In an autoimmune disease, the immune system creates autoantibodies, which are antibodies or immunoglobulins that attack the body itself. Autoimmune diseases may be systemic and affect many parts of the body, or they may affect only specific organs or regions. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) affects many parts of the body: primarily the skin and joints, but also the kidneys. Because women are more likely to develop SLE than men, some researchers believe that a sex-linked genetic factor may play a part in making a person susceptible, although viral infection has also been implicated as a triggering factor. Lupus nephritis is the name given to the kidney disease caused by SLE, and it occurs when autoantibodies form or are deposited in the glomeruli, causing inflammation. Ultimately, the inflammation may create scars that keep the kidneys from functioning properly. Conventional treatment for lupus nephritis includes a combination of two drugs, cyclophosphamide, a cytotoxic agent that suppresses the immune system, and prednisolone, a corticosteroid used to reduce inflammation. A newer immunosuppressant, mychophenolate mofetil (MMF), has been used instead of cyclophosphamide. Preliminary studies indicate that MMF may be as effective as cyclophosphamide and has milder side effects. Goodpasture's Syndrome involves an autoantibody that specifically targets the kidneys and the lungs. Often, the first indication that patients have the autoantibody is when they cough up blood. But lung damage in Goodpasture's Syndrome is usually superficial compared with progressive and permanent damage to the kidneys. Goodpasture's Syndrome is a rare condition that affects mostly young men but also occurs in women, children, and older adults. Treatments include immunosuppressive drugs and a blood-cleaning therapy called plasmapheresis that removes the autoantibodies. IgA nephropathy is a form of glomerular disease that results when immunoglobulin A (IgA) forms deposits in the glomeruli, where it creates inflammation. IgA nephropathy was not recognized as a cause of glomerular disease until the late 1960s, when sophisticated biopsy techniques were developed that could identify IgA deposits in kidney tissue. The most common symptom of IgA nephropathy is blood in the urine, but it is often a silent disease that may go undetected for many years. The silent nature of the disease makes it difficult to determine how many people are in the early stages of IgA nephropathy, when specific medical tests are the only way to detect it. This disease is estimated to be the most common cause of primary glomerulonephritisthat is, glomerular disease not caused by a systemic disease like lupus or diabetes mellitus. It appears to affect men more than women. Although IgA nephropathy is found in all age groups, young people rarely display signs of kidney failure because the disease usually takes several years to progress to the stage where it causes detectable complications. No treatment is recommended for early or mild cases of IgA nephropathy when the patient has normal blood pressure and less than 1 gram of protein in a 24-hour urine output. When proteinuria exceeds 1 gram/day, treatment is aimed at protecting kidney function by reducing proteinuria and controlling blood pressure. Blood pressure medicinesangiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs)that block a hormone called angiotensin are most effective at achieving those two goals simultaneously. Hereditary NephritisAlport Syndrome The primary indicator of Alport syndrome is a family history of chronic glomerular disease, although it may also involve hearing or vision impairment. This syndrome affects both men and women, but men are more likely to experience chronic kidney disease and sensory loss. Men with Alport syndrome usually first show evidence of renal insufficiency while in their twenties and reach total kidney failure by age 40. Women rarely have significant renal impairment, and hearing loss may be so slight that it can be detected only through testing with special equipment. Usually men can pass the disease only to their daughters. Women can transmit the disease to either their sons or their daughters. Treatment focuses on controlling blood pressure to maintain kidney function. Infection-related Glomerular Disease Glomerular disease sometimes develops rapidly after an infection in other parts of the body. Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) can occur after an episode of strep throat or, in rare cases, impetigo (a skin infection). The Streptococcus bacteria do not attack the kidney directly, but an infection may stimulate the immune system to overproduce antibodies, which are circulated in the blood and finally deposited in the glomeruli, causing damage. PSGN can bring on sudden symptoms of swelling (edema), reduced urine output (oliguria), and blood in the urine (hematuria). Tests will show large amounts of protein in the urine and elevated levels of creatinine and urea nitrogen in the blood, thus indicating reduced kidney function. High blood pressure frequently accompanies reduced kidney function in this disease. PSGN is most common in children between the ages of 3 and 7, although it can strike at any age, and it most often affects boys. It lasts only a brief time and usually allows the kidneys to recover. In a few cases, however, kidney damage may be permanent, requiring dialysis or transplantation to replace renal function. Bacterial endocarditis, infection of the tissues inside the heart, is also associated with subsequent glomerular disease. Researchers are not sure whether the renal lesions that form after a heart infection are caused entirely by the immune response or whether some other disease mechanism contributes to kidney damage. Treating the heart infection is the most effective way of minimizing kidney damage. Endocarditis sometimes produces chronic kidney disease (CKD). HIV, the virus that leads to AIDS, can also cause glomerular disease. Between 5 and 10 percent of people with HIV experience kidney failure, even before developing full-blown AIDS. HIV-associated nephropathy usually begins with heavy proteinuria and progresses rapidly (within a year of detection) to total kidney failure. Researchers are looking for therapies that can slow down or reverse this rapid deterioration of renal function, but some possible solutions involving immunosuppression are risky because of the patients' already compromised immune system. Sclerotic Diseases Glomerulosclerosis is scarring (sclerosis) of the glomeruli. In several sclerotic conditions, a systemic disease like lupus or diabetes is responsible. Glomerulosclerosis is caused by the activation of glomerular cells to produce scar material. This may be stimulated by molecules called growth factors, which may be made by glomerular cells themselves or may be brought to the glomerulus by the circulating blood that enters the glomerular filter. Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of glomerular disease and of total kidney failure in the United States. Kidney disease is one of several problems caused by elevated levels of blood glucose, the central feature of diabetes. In addition to scarring the kidney, elevated glucose levels appear to increase the speed of blood flow into the kidney, putting a strain on the filtering glomeruli and raising blood pressure. Diabetic nephropathy usually takes many years to develop. People with diabetes can slow down damage to their kidneys by controlling their blood glucose through healthy eating with moderate protein intake, physical activity, and medications. People with diabetes should also be careful to keep their blood pressure at a level below 140/90 mm Hg, if possible. Blood pressure medications called ACE inhibitors and ARBs are particularly effective at minimizing kidney damage and are now frequently prescribed to control blood pressure in patients with diabetes and in patients with many forms of kidney disease. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) describes scarring in scattered regions of the kidney, typically limited to one part of the glomerulus and to a minority of glomeruli in the affected region. FSGS may result from a systemic disorder or it may develop as an idiopathic kidney disease, without a known cause. Proteinuria is the most common symptom of FSGS, but, since proteinuria is associated with several other kidney conditions, the doctor cannot diagnose FSGS on the basis of proteinuria alone. Biopsy may confirm the presence of glomerular scarring if the tissue is taken from the affected section of the kidney. But finding the affected section is a matter of chance, especially early in the disease process, when lesions may be scattered. Confirming a diagnosis of FSGS may require repeat kidney biopsies. Arriving at a diagnosis of idiopathic FSGS requires the identification of focal scarring and the elimination of possible systemic causes such as diabetes or an immune response to infection. Since idiopathic FSGS is, by definition, of unknown cause, it is difficult to treat. No universal remedy has been found, and most patients with FSGS progress to total kidney failure over 5 to 20 years. Some patients with an aggressive form of FSGS reach total kidney failure in 2 to 3 years. Treatments involving steroids or other immunosuppressive drugs appear to help some patients by decreasing proteinuria and improving kidney function. But these treatments are beneficial to only a minority of those in whom they are tried, and some patients experience even poorer kidney function as a result. ACE inhibitors and ARBs may also be used in FSGS to decrease proteinuria. Treatment should focus on controlling blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels, factors that may contribute to kidney scarring. Other Glomerular Diseases Membranous nephropathy, also called membranous glomerulopathy, is the second most common cause of the nephrotic syndrome (proteinuria, edema, high cholesterol) in U.S. adults after diabetic nephropathy. Diagnosis of membranous nephropathy requires a kidney biopsy, which reveals unusual deposits of immunoglobulin G and complement C3, substances created by the body's immune system. Fully 75 percent of cases are idiopathic, which means that the cause of the disease is unknown. The remaining 25 percent of cases are the result of other diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus, hepatitis B or C infection, or some forms of cancer. Drug therapies involving penicillamine, gold, or captopril have also been associated with membranous nephropathy. About 20 to 40 percent of patients with membranous nephropathy progress, usually over decades, to total kidney failure, but most patients experience either complete remission or continued symptoms without progressive kidney failure. Doctors disagree about how aggressively to treat this condition, since about 20 percent of patients recover without treatment. ACE inhibitors and ARBs are generally used to reduce proteinuria. Additional medication to control high blood pressure and edema is frequently required. Some patients benefit from steroids, but this treatment does not work for everyone. Additional immunosuppressive medications are helpful for some patients with progressive disease. Minimal change disease (MCD) is the diagnosis given when a patient has the nephrotic syndrome and the kidney biopsy reveals little or no change to the structure of glomeruli or surrounding tissues when examined by a light microscope. Tiny drops of a fatty substance called a lipid may be present, but no scarring has taken place within the kidney. MCD may occur at any age, but it is most common in childhood. A small percentage of patients with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome do not respond to steroid therapy. For these patients, the doctor may recommend a low-sodium diet and prescribe a diuretic to control edema. The doctor may recommend the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce proteinuria. ACE inhibitors and ARBs have also been used to reduce proteinuria in patients with steroid-resistant MCD. These patients may respond to larger doses of steroids, more prolonged use of steroids, or steroids in combination with immunosuppressant drugs, such as chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, or cyclosporine.

What are the treatments for Cardiomyopathy ?

People who have cardiomyopathy but no signs or symptoms may not need treatment. Sometimes, dilated cardiomyopathy that comes on suddenly may go away on its own. For other people who have cardiomyopathy, treatment is needed. Treatment depends on the type of cardiomyopathy you have, the severity of your symptoms and complications, and your age and overall health. Treatments may include: Heart-healthy lifestyle changes Medicines Nonsurgical procedure Surgery and implanted devices The main goals of treating cardiomyopathy include: Controlling signs and symptoms so that you can live as normally as possible Managing any conditions that cause or contribute to the disease Reducing complications and the risk of sudden cardiac arrest Stopping the disease from getting worse Heart-Healthy Lifestyle Changes Your doctor may suggest lifestyle changes to manage a condition thats causing your cardiomyopathy including: Heart-healthy eating Maintaining a healthy weight Managing stress Physical activity Quitting smoking Heart-Healthy Eating Your doctor may recommend heart-healthy eating, which should include: Fat-free or low-fat dairy products, such as fat-free milk Fish high in omega-3 fatty acids, such as salmon, tuna, and trout, about twice a week Fruits, such as apples, bananas, oranges, pears, and prunes Legumes, such as kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and lima beans Vegetables, such as broccoli, cabbage, and carrots Whole grains, such as oatmeal, brown rice, and corn tortillas When following a heart-healthy diet, you should avoid eating: A lot of red meat Palm and coconut oils Sugary foods and beverages Two nutrients in your diet make blood cholesterol levels rise: Saturated fatfound mostly in foods that come from animals Trans fat (trans fatty acids)found in foods made with hydrogenated oils and fats such as stick margarine;baked goods such as, cookies, cakes, and pies, crackers, frostings, and coffee creamers. Some trans fats also occur naturally in animal fats and meats. Saturated fat raises your blood cholesterol more than anything else in your diet. When you follow a heart-healthy eating plan, only 5 percent to 6percent of your daily calories should come from saturated fat. Food labels list the amounts of saturated fat. To help you stay on track, here are some examples: Not all fats are bad. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats actually help lower blood cholesterol levels. Some sources of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are: Avocados Corn, sunflower, and soybean oils Nuts and seeds, such as walnuts Olive, canola, peanut, safflower, and sesame oils Peanut butter Salmon and trout Tofu Sodium Try to limit the amount of sodium that you eat. This means choosing and preparing foods that are lower in salt and sodium. Try to use low-sodium and no added salt foods and seasonings at the table or while cooking. Food labels tell you what you need to know about choosing foods that are lower in sodium. Try to eat no more than 2,300 milligrams of sodium a day. If you have high blood pressure, you may need to restrict your sodium intake even more. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension Your doctor may recommend the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating plan if you have high blood pressure. The DASH eating plan focuses on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and other foods that are heart healthy and low in fat, cholesterol, and sodium and salt. The DASH eating plan is a good heart-healthy eating plan, even for those who dont have high blood pressure. Read more about DASH. Alcohol Talk to your doctor about how much alcohol you drink. Too much alcohol canraise your blood pressure and triglyceride levels, a type of fat found in the blood. Alcohol also adds extra calories, which may cause weight gain. Your doctor may recommend that you reduce the amount of alcohol you drinkor stop drinking alcohol. Maintaining a Healthy Weight Maintaining a healthy weight is important for overall health and can lower your risk for coronary heart disease. Aim for a Healthy Weight by following a heart-healthy eating plan and keeping physically active. Knowing your body mass index (BMI) helps you find out if youre a healthy weight in relation to your height and gives an estimate of your total body fat. To figure out your BMI, check out the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institutes (NHLBI) onlineBMI calculatoror talk to your doctor.A BMI: Below 18.5 is a sign that you are underweight. Between 18.5 and 24.9 is in the normal range. Between 25 and 29.9 is considered overweight. Of 30 or more is considered obese. A general goal to aim for is a BMI of less than 25. Your doctor or health care provider can help you set an appropriate BMI goal. Measuring waist circumference helps screen for possible health risks. If most of your fat is around your waist rather than at your hips, youre at a higher risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes. This risk may be high with a waist size that is greater than 35 inches for women or greater than 40 inches for men. To learn how to measure your waist, visitAssessing Your Weight and Health Risk. If youre overweight or obese, try to lose weight. A loss of just 3 percent to 5 percent of your current weight can lower your triglycerides, blood glucose, and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Greater amounts of weight loss can improve blood pressure readings, lower LDL cholesterol, and increase HDL cholesterol. Managing Stress Research shows that the most commonly reported trigger for a heart attack is an emotionally upsetting eventparticularly one involving anger. Also, some of the ways people cope with stresssuch as drinking, smoking, or overeatingarent healthy. Learning how to manage stress, relax, and cope with problems can improve your emotional and physical health.Consider healthy stress-reducing activities, such as: A stress management program Meditation Physical activity Relaxation therapy Talking things out with friends or family Physical Activity Routine physical activity can lower many risk factors for coronary heart disease, including LDL (bad) cholesterol, high blood pressure, and excess weight. Physical activity also can lower your risk for diabetes and raise your HDL cholesterol level. HDL is the good cholesterol that helps prevent coronary heart disease. Everyone should try to participate in moderate intensity aerobic exercise at least 2hours and 30minutes per week, or vigorous intensity aerobic exercise for 1hour and 15minutes per week. Aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking, is any exercise in which your heart beats fasterand you use more oxygen than usual. The more active you are, the more you will benefit. Participate in aerobic exercise for at least 10 minutes at a time spread throughout the week. Read more about physical activity at: Physical Activity and Your Heart U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines forAmericans Talk with your doctor before you start a new exercise plan. Ask your doctor how much and what kinds of physical activity are safe for you. Quitting Smoking If you smoke, quit. Smoking can raise your risk for coronary heart disease and heart attack and worsen other coronary heart disease risk factors. Talk with your doctor about programs and products that can help you quit smoking. Also, try to avoid secondhand smoke. If you have trouble quitting smoking on your own, consider joining a support group. Many hospitals, workplaces, and community groups offer classes to help people quit smoking. Read more about quitting smoking at Smoking and Your Heart. Medicines Many medicines are used to treat cardiomyopathy. Your doctor may prescribe medicines to: Balance electrolytes in your body. Electrolytes are minerals that help maintain fluid levels and acid-base balance in the body. They also help muscle and nerve tissues work properly. Abnormal electrolyte levels may be a sign of dehydration (lack of fluid in your body), heart failure, high blood pressure, or other disorders. Aldosterone blockers are an example of a medicine used to balance electrolytes. Keep your heart beating with a normal rhythm. These medicines, called antiarrhythmics, help prevent arrhythmias. Lower your blood pressure. ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers are examples of medicines that lower blood pressure. Prevent blood clots from forming. Anticoagulants, or blood thinners, are an example of a medicine that prevents blood clots. Blood thinners often are used to prevent blood clots from forming in people who have dilated cardiomyopathy. Reduce inflammation. Corticosteroids are an example of a medicine used to reduce inflammation. Remove excess sodium from your body. Diuretics, or water pills, are an example of medicines that help remove excess sodium from the body, which reduces the amount of fluid in your blood. Slow your heart rate. Beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and digoxin are examples of medicines that slow the heart rate. Beta blockers and calcium channel blockers also are used to lower blood pressure. Take all medicines regularly, as your doctor prescribes. Dont change the amount of your medicine or skip a dose unless your doctor tells you to. Surgery and Implanted Devices Doctors use several types of surgery to treat cardiomyopathy, including septal myectomy, surgically implanted devices, and heart transplant. Septal Myectomy Septal myectomy is open-heart surgery and is used to treat people who have hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and severe symptoms. This surgery generally is used for younger patients and for people whose medicines arent working well. A surgeon removes part of the thickened septum thats bulging into the left ventricle. This improves blood flow through the heart and out to the body. The removed tissue doesnt grow back. If needed, the surgeon also can repair or replace the mitral valve at the same time. Septal myectomy often is successful and allows you to return to a normal life with nosymptoms. Surgically Implanted Devices Surgeons can place several types of devices in the heart to improve function and symptoms, including: Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) device. A CRT device coordinates contractions between the hearts left and right ventricles. Implantable cardioverter defibrillator(ICD). An ICD helps control life-threatening arrhythmias that may lead tosudden cardiac arrest. This small device is implanted in the chest or abdomen and connected to the heart with wires. If an ICD senses a dangerous change in heart rhythm, it will send an electric shock to the heart to restore a normal heartbeat. Left ventricular assist device (LVAD). This device helps the heart pump blood to the body. An LVAD can be used as a long-term therapy or as a short-term treatment for people who are waiting for a heart transplant. Pacemaker. This small device is placed under the skin of your chest or abdomen to help control arrhythmias. The device uses electrical pulses to prompt the heart to beat at a normal rate. Heart Transplant For this surgery, a surgeon replaces a persons diseased heart with a healthy heart from a deceased donor. A heart transplant is a last resort treatment for people who have end-stage heart failure. End-stage means the condition has become so severe that all treatments, other than heart transplant, have failed. For more information about this treatment, go to the Heart Transplant Health Topic. Nonsurgical Procedure Doctors may use a nonsurgical procedure called alcohol septal ablation to treat cardiomyopathy. During this procedure, the doctor injects ethanol (a type of alcohol) through a tube into the small artery that supplies blood to the thickened area of heart muscle. The alcohol kills cells, and the thickened tissue shrinks to a more normal size. This procedure allows blood to flow freely through the ventricle, which improves symptoms.

What are the treatments for Urinary Incontinence in Men ?

Treatment depends on the type of UI. Urgency Incontinence As a first line of therapy for urgency incontinence, a health care professional may recommend the following techniques to treat a mans problem: - behavioral and lifestyle changes - bladder training - pelvic floor exercises - urgency suppression If those treatments are not successful, the following additional measures may help urgency incontinence: - medications - electrical nerve stimulation - bulking agents - surgery A health care professional may recommend other treatments for men with urgency incontinence caused by BPH. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Prostate Enlargement: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia. Behavioral and lifestyle changes. Men with urgency incontinence may be able to reduce leaks by making behavioral and lifestyle changes: - Eating, diet, and nutrition. Men with urgency incontinence can change the amount and type of liquid they drink. A man can try limiting bladder irritantsincluding caffeinated drinks such as tea or coffee and carbonated beveragesto decrease leaks. Men also should limit alcoholic drinks, which can increase urine production. A health care professional can help a man determine how much he should drink based on his health, how active he is, and where he lives. To decrease nighttime trips to the restroom, men may want to stop drinking liquids several hours before bed. - Engaging in physical activity. Although a man may be reluctant to engage in physical activity when he has urgency incontinence, regular exercise is important for good overall health and for preventing and treating UI. - Losing weight. Men who are overweight should talk with a health care professional about strategies for losing weight, which can help improve UI. - Preventing constipation. Gastrointestinal (GI) problems, especially constipation, can make urinary tract health worse and can lead to UI. The opposite is also true: Urinary problems, such as UI, can make GI problems worse. More information about how to prevent constipation through diet and physical activity is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Constipation. To Help Prevent Bladder Problems, Stop Smoking People who smoke should stop. Quitting smoking at any age promotes bladder health and overall health. Smoking increases a persons chance of developing stress incontinence, as it increases coughing. Some people say smoking worsens their bladder irritation. Smoking causes most cases of bladder cancer. People who smoke for many years have a higher risk of bladder cancer than nonsmokers or those who smoke for a short time.2 People who smoke should ask for help so they do not have to try quitting alone. Call 1-800-QUITNOW (1-800-784-8669) for more information. Bladder training. Bladder training is changing urination habits to decrease incidents of UI. The health care professional may suggest a man use the restroom at regular timed intervals, called timed voiding, based on the mans bladder diary. A man can gradually lengthen the time between trips to the restroom to help stretch the bladder so it can hold more urine. Pelvic floor muscle exercises. Pelvic floor muscle, or Kegel, exercises involve strengthening pelvic floor muscles. Strong pelvic floor muscles hold in urine more effectively than weak muscles. A man does not need special equipment for Kegel exercises. The exercises involve tightening and relaxing the muscles that control urine flow. Pelvic floor exercises should not be performed during urination. A health care professional can help a man learn proper technique. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Kegel Exercise Tips. Men also may learn how to perform Kegel exercises properly by using biofeedback. Biofeedback uses special sensors to measure bodily functions, such as muscle contractions that control urination. A video monitor displays the measurements as graphs, and sounds indicate when the man is using the correct muscles. The health care professional uses the information to help the man change abnormal function of the pelvic floor muscles. At home, the man practices to improve muscle function. The man can perform the exercises while lying down, sitting at a desk, or standing up. Success with pelvic floor exercises depends on the cause of UI, its severity, and the mans ability to perform the exercises. Urgency suppression. By using certain techniques, a man can suppress the urge to urinate, called urgency suppression. Urgency suppression is a way for a man to train his bladder to maintain control so he does not have to panic about finding a restroom. Some men use distraction techniques to take their mind off the urge to urinate. Other men find taking long, relaxing breaths and being still can help. Doing pelvic floor exercises also can help suppress the urge to urinate. Medications. Health care professionals may prescribe medications that relax the bladder, decrease bladder spasms, or treat prostate enlargement to treat urgency incontinence in men. - Antimuscarinics. Antimuscarinics can help relax bladder muscles and prevent bladder spasms. These medications include oxybutynin (Oxytrol), tolterodine (Detrol), darifenacin (Enablex), trospium (Sanctura), fesoterodine (Toviaz), and solifenacin (VESIcare). They are available in pill, liquid, and patch form. - Tricyclic antidepressants. Tricyclic antidepressants such as imipramine (Tofranil) can calm nerve signals, decreasing spasms in bladder muscles. - Alpha-blockers. Terazosin (Hytrin), doxazosin (Cardura), tamsulosin (Flomax), alfuzosin (Uroxatral), and silodosin (Rapaflo) are used to treat problems caused by prostate enlargement and bladder outlet obstruction. These medications relax the smooth muscle of the prostate and bladder neck, which lets urine flow normally and prevents abnormal bladder contractions that can lead to urgency incontinence. - 5-alpha reductase inhibitors. Finasteride (Proscar) and dutasteride (Avodart) block the production of the male hormone dihydrotestosterone, which accumulates in the prostate and may cause prostate growth. These medications may help to relieve urgency incontinence problems by shrinking an enlarged prostate. - Beta-3 agonists. Mirabegron (Myrbetriq) is a beta-3 agonist a person takes by mouth to help prevent symptoms of urgency incontinence. Mirabegron suppresses involuntary bladder contractions. - Botox. A health care professional may use onabotulinumtoxinA (Botox), also called botulinum toxin type A, to treat UI in men with neurological conditions such as spinal cord injury or multiple sclerosis. Injecting Botox into the bladder relaxes the bladder, increasing storage capacity and decreasing UI. A health care professional performs the procedure during an office visit. A man receives local anesthesia. The health care professional uses a cystoscope to guide the needle for injecting the Botox. Botox is effective for up to 10 months.3 Electrical nerve stimulation. If behavioral and lifestyle changes and medications do not improve symptoms, a urologist may suggest electrical nerve stimulation as an option to prevent UI, urinary frequencyurination more often than normaland other symptoms. Electrical nerve stimulation involves altering bladder reflexes using pulses of electricity. The two most common types of electrical nerve stimulation are percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation and sacral nerve stimulation.4 - Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation uses electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve, which is located in the ankle, on a weekly basis. The patient receives local anesthesia for the procedure. In an outpatient center, a urologist inserts a battery-operated stimulator beneath the skin near the tibial nerve. Electrical stimulation of the tibial nerve prevents bladder activity by interfering with the pathway between the bladder and the spinal cord or brain. Although researchers consider percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation safe, they continue to study the exact ways that it prevents symptoms and how long the treatment can last. - Sacral nerve stimulation involves implanting a battery-operated stimulator beneath the skin in the lower back near the sacral nerve. The procedure takes place in an outpatient center using local anesthesia. Based on the patients feedback, the health care professional can adjust the amount of stimulation so it works best for that individual. The electrical pulses enter the body for minutes to hours, two or more times a day, either through wires placed on the lower back or just above the pubic areabetween the navel and the pubic hair. Sacral nerve stimulation may increase blood flow to the bladder, strengthen pelvic muscles that help control the bladder, and trigger the release of natural substances that block pain. The patient can turn the stimulator on or off at any time. A patient may consider getting an implanted device that delivers regular impulses to the bladder. A urologist places a wire next to the tailbone and attaches it to a permanent stimulator under the skin. Bulking agents. A urologist injects bulking agents, such as collagen and carbon spheres, near the urinary sphincter to treat incontinence. The bulking agent makes the tissues thicker and helps close the bladder opening. Before the procedure, the health care professional may perform a skin test to make sure the man doesnt have an allergic reaction to the bulking agent. A urologist performs the procedure during an office visit. The man receives local anesthesia. The urologist uses a cystoscopea tubelike instrument used to look inside the urethra and bladderto guide the needle for injection of the bulking agent. Over time, the body may slowly eliminate certain bulking agents, so a man may need to have injections again. Surgery. As a last resort, surgery to treat urgency incontinence in men includes the artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) and the male sling. A health care professional performs the surgery in a hospital with regional or general anesthesia. Most men can leave the hospital the same day, although some may need to stay overnight. - AUS. An AUS is an implanted device that keeps the urethra closed until the man is ready to urinate. The device has three parts: a cuff that fits around the urethra, a small balloon reservoir placed in the abdomen, and a pump placed in the scrotumthe sac that holds the testicles. The cuff contains a liquid that makes it fit tightly around the urethra to prevent urine from leaking. When it is time to urinate, the man squeezes the pump with his fingers to deflate the cuff. The liquid moves to the balloon reservoir and lets urine flow through the urethra. When the bladder is empty, the cuff automatically refills in the next 2 to 5 minutes to keep the urethra tightly closed. - Male sling. A health care professional performs a sling procedure, also called urethral compression procedure, to add support to the urethra, which can sometimes better control urination. Through an incision in the tissue between the scrotum and the rectum, also called the perineum, the health care professional uses a piece of human tissue or mesh to compress the urethra against the pubic bone. The surgeon secures the ends of the tissue or mesh around the pelvic bones. The lifting and compression of the urethra sometimes provides better control over urination. Stress Incontinence Men who have stress incontinence can use the same techniques for treating urgency incontinence. Functional Incontinence Men with functional incontinence may wear protective undergarments if they worry about reaching a restroom in time. These products include adult diapers or pads and are available from drugstores, grocery stores, and medical supply stores. Men who have functional incontinence should talk to a health care professional about its cause and how to prevent or treat functional incontinence. Overflow Incontinence A health care professional treats overflow incontinence caused by a blockage in the urinary tract with surgery to remove the obstruction. Men with overflow incontinence that is not caused by a blockage may need to use a catheter to empty the bladder. A catheter is a thin, flexible tube that is inserted through the urethra into the bladder to drain urine. A health care professional can teach a man how to use a catheter. A man may need to use a catheter once in a while, a few times a day, or all the time. Catheters that are used continuously drain urine from the bladder into a bag that is attached to the mans thigh with a strap. Men using a continuous catheter should watch for symptoms of an infection. Transient Incontinence A health care professional treats transient incontinence by addressing the underlying cause. For example, if a medication is causing increased urine production leading to UI, a health care professional may try lowering the dose or prescribing a different medication. A health care professional may prescribe bacteria-fighting medications called antibiotics to treat UTIs.

What are the symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease ?

Early Signs and Symptoms If a person has sickle cell disease (SCD), it is present at birth. But most infants do not have any problems from the disease until they are about 5 or 6 months of age. Every state in the United States, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territories requires that all newborn babies receive screening for SCD. When a child has SCD, parents are notified before the child has symptoms. Some children with SCD will start to have problems early on, and some later. Early symptoms of SCD may include: Painful swelling of the hands and feet, known as dactylitis Fatigue or fussiness from anemia A yellowish color of the skin, known as jaundice, or whites of the eyes, known as icteris, that occurs when a large number of red cells hemolyze The signs and symptoms of SCD will vary from person to person and can change over time. Most of the signs and symptoms of SCD are related to complications of the disease. Major Complications of Sickle Cell Disease Acute Pain (Sickle Cell or Vaso-occlusive) Crisis Pain episodes (crises) can occur without warning when sickle cells block blood flow and decrease oxygen delivery. People describe this pain as sharp, intense, stabbing, or throbbing. Severe crises can be even more uncomfortable than post-surgical pain or childbirth. Pain can strike almost anywhere in the body and in more than one spot at a time. But the pain often occurs in the Lower back Legs Arms Abdomen Chest A crisis can be brought on by Illness Temperature changes Stress Dehydration (not drinking enough) Being at high altitudes But often a person does not know what triggers, or causes, the crisis. (See acute pain management.) Chronic Pain Many adolescents and adults with SCD suffer from chronic pain. This kind of pain has been hard for people to describe, but it is usually different from crisis pain or the pain that results from organ damage. Chronic pain can be severe and can make life difficult. Its cause is not well understood. (See chronic pain management.) Severe Anemia People with SCD usually have mild to moderate anemia. At times, however, they can have severe anemia. Severe anemia can be life threatening. Severe anemia in an infant or child with SCD may be caused by: Splenic sequestration crisis. The spleen is an organ that is located in the upper left side of the belly. The spleen filters germs in the blood, breaks up blood cells, and makes a kind of white blood cell. A splenic sequestration crisis occurs when red blood cells get stuck in the spleen, making it enlarge quickly. Since the red blood cells are trapped in the spleen, there are fewer cells to circulate in the blood. This causes severe anemia. A big spleen may also cause pain in the left side of the belly. A parent can usuallypalpate or feel the enlarged spleen in the belly of his or her child. A big spleen may also cause pain in the left side of the belly. A parent can usuallypalpate or feel the enlarged spleen in the belly of his or her child. Aplastic crisis. This crisis is usually caused by a parvovirus B19 infection, also called fifth disease or slapped cheek syndrome. Parvovirus B19 is a very common infection, but in SCD it can cause the bone marrow to stop producing new red cells for a while, leading to severe anemia. Splenic sequestration crisis and aplastic crisis most commonly occur in infants and children with SCD. Adults with SCD may also experience episodes of severe anemia, but these usually have other causes. No matter the cause, severe anemia may lead to symptoms that include: Shortness of breath Being very tired Feeling dizzy Having pale skin Babies and infants with severe anemia may feed poorly and seem very sluggish. (See anemia management.) Infections The spleen is important for protection against certain kinds of germs. Sickle cells can damage the spleen and weaken or destroy its function early in life. People with SCD who have damaged spleens are at risk for serious bacterial infections that can be life-threatening. Some of these bacteria include: Pneumococcus Hemophilus influenza type B Meningococcus Salmonella Staphylococcus Chlamydia Mycoplasma pneumoniae Bacteria can cause: Blood infection (septicemia) Lung infection (pneumonia) Infection of the covering of the brain and spinal cord (meningitis) Bone infection (osteomyelitis) (See how to prevent infections and infection management.) Acute Chest Syndrome Sickling in blood vessels of the lungs can deprive a persons lungs of oxygen. When this happens, areas of lung tissue are damaged and cannot exchange oxygen properly. This condition is known as acute chest syndrome. In acute chest syndrome, at least one segment of the lung is damaged. This condition is very serious and should be treated right away at a hospital. Acute chest syndrome often starts a few days after a painful crisis begins. A lung infection may accompany acute chest syndrome. Symptoms may include: Chest pain Fever Shortness of breath Rapid breathing Cough (See acute chest syndrome management.) Brain Complications Clinical Stroke A stroke occurs when blood flow is blocked to a part of the brain. When this happens, brain cells can be damaged or can die. In SCD, a clinical stroke means that a person shows outward signs that something is wrong. The symptoms depend upon what part of the brain is affected. Symptoms of stroke may include: Weakness of an arm or leg on one side of the body Trouble speaking, walking, or understanding Loss of balance Severe headache As many as 24 percent of people with hemoglobin SS and 10 percent of people with hemoglobin SC may suffer a clinical stroke by age 45. In children, clinical stroke occurs most commonly between the ages of 2 and 9, but recent prevention strategies have lowered the risk. (See Transcranial Doppler (TCD) Ultrasound Screening) and Red Blood Cell Transfusions.) When people with SCD show symptoms of stroke, their families or friends should call 9-1-1 right away. (See clinical stroke management.) Silent Stroke and Thinking Problems Brain imaging and tests of thinking (cognitive studies) have shown that children and adults with hemoglobin SS and hemoglobin S0 thalassemia often have signs of silent brain injury, also called silent stroke. Silent brain injury is damage to the brain without showing outward signs of stroke. This injury is common. Silent brain injury can lead to learning problems or trouble making decisions or holding down a job. (See Cognitive Screening and silent stroke management.) Eye Problems Sickle cell disease can injure blood vessels in the eye. The most common site of damage is the retina, where blood vessels can overgrow, get blocked, or bleed. The retina is the light-sensitive layer of tissue that lines the inside of the eye and sends visual messages through the optic nerve to the brain. Detachment of the retina can occur. When the retina detaches, it is lifted or pulled from its normal position. These problems can cause visual impairment or loss. (See Eye Examinations.) Heart Disease People with SCD can have problems with blood vessels in the heart and with heart function. The heart can become enlarged. People can also develop pulmonary hypertension. People with SCD who have received frequent blood transfusions may also have heart damage from iron overload. (See transfusion management.) Pulmonary Hypertension In adolescents and adults, injury to blood vessels in the lungs can make it hard for the heart to pump blood through them. This causes the pressure in lung blood vessels to rise. High pressure in these blood vessels is called pulmonary hypertension. Symptoms may include shortness of breath and fatigue. When this condition is severe, it has been associated with a higher risk of death. (See screening for pulmonary hypertension.) Kidney Problems The kidneys are sensitive to the effects of red blood cell sickling. SCD causes the kidneys to have trouble making the urine as concentrated as it should be. This may lead to a need to urinate often and to have bedwetting or uncontrolled urination during the night (nocturnal enuresis). This often starts in childhood. Other problems may include: Blood in the urine Decreased kidney function Kidney disease Protein loss in the urine Priapism Males with SCD can have unwanted, sometimes prolonged, painful erections. This condition is called priapism. Priapism happens when blood flow out of the erect penis is blocked by sickled cells. If it goes on for a long period of time, priapism can cause permanent damage to the penis and lead to impotence. If priapism lasts for more than 4 hours, emergency medical care should be sought to avoid complications. (See priapism management.) Gallstones When red cells hemolyze, they release hemoglobin. Hemoglobin gets broken down into a substance called bilirubin. Bilirubin can form stones that get stuck in the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a small, sac-shaped organ beneath the liver that helps with digestion. Gallstones are a common problem in SCD. Gallstones may be formed early on but may not produce symptoms for years. When symptoms develop, they may include: Right-sided upper belly pain Nausea Vomiting If problems continue or recur, a person may need surgery to remove the gallbladder. Liver Complications There are a number of ways in which the liver may be injured in SCD. Sickle cell intrahepatic cholestasis is an uncommon, but severe, form of liver damage that occurs when sickled red cells block blood vessels in the liver. This blockage prevents enough oxygen from reaching liver tissue. These episodes are usually sudden and may recur. Children often recover, but some adults may have chronic problems that lead to liver failure. People with SCD who have received frequent blood transfusions may develop liver damage from iron overload. Leg Ulcers Sickle cell ulcers are sores that usually start small and then get larger and larger. The number of ulcers can vary from one to many. Some ulcers will heal quickly, but others may not heal and may last for long periods of time. Some ulcers come back after healing. People with SCD usually dont get ulcers until after the age of 10. Joint Complications Sickling in the bones of the hip and, less commonly, the shoulder joints, knees, and ankles, can decrease oxygen flow and result in severe damage. This damage is a condition called avascular or aseptic necrosis. This disease is usually found in adolescents and adults. Symptoms include pain and problems with walking and joint movement. A person may need pain medicines, surgery, or joint replacement if symptoms persist. Delayed Growth and Puberty Children with SCD may grow and develop more slowly than their peers because of anemia. They will reach full sexual maturity, but this may be delayed. Pregnancy Pregnancies in women with SCD can be risky for both the mother and the baby. Mothers may have medical complications including: Infections Blood clots High blood pressure Increased pain episodes They are also at higher risk for: Miscarriages Premature births Small-for-dates babies or underweight babies (See pregnancy management.) Mental Health As in other chronic diseases, people with SCD may feel sad and frustrated at times. The limitations that SCD can impose on a persons daily activities may cause them to feel isolated from others. Sometimes they become depressed. People with SCD may also have trouble coping with pain and fatigue, as well as with frequent medical visits and hospitalizations. (See living with emotional issues.)

What are the symptoms of Anaplasmosis ?

Anaplasmosis is a disease caused by the bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilium. This pathogen is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected tick. The black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) is the vector of A. phagocytophilum in the northeast and upper midwestern United States. The western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus) is the primary vector in Northern California. The first symptoms of anaplasmosis typically begin within 1-2 weeks after the bite of an infected tick. A tick bite is usually painless, and some patients who develop anaplasmosis do not remember being bitten. The following is a list of symptoms commonly seen with this disease. However, it is important to note that few people with the disease will develop all symptoms, and the number and combination of symptoms varies greatly from person to person. - Fever - Headache - Muscle pain - Malaise - Chills - Nausea / Abdominal pain - Cough - Confusion - Rash (rare with anaplasmosis) Anaplasmosis can be a serious illness that can be fatal if not treated correctly, even in previously healthy people. Severe clinical presentations may include difficulty breathing, hemorrhage, renal failure or neurological problems. The estimated case fatality rate (i.e., the proportion of persons who die as a result of their infection) is less than 1%. Patients who are treated early may recover quickly on outpatient medication, while those who experience a more severe course may require intravenous antibiotics, prolonged hospitalization or intensive care. Rash Rash is rarely reported in patients with anaplasmosis and the presence of a rash may signify that the patient has a coinfection with the pathogen that causes Lyme disease or another tickborne disease, such as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever . Immune-compromised Individuals The severity of anaplasmosis may depend in part on the immune status of the patient. Persons with compromised immunity caused by immunosuppressive therapies (e.g., corticosteroids, cancer chemotherapy, or longterm immunosuppressive therapy following organ transplant), HIV infection, or splenectomy appear to develop more severe disease, and case-fatality rates for these individuals are characteristically higher than case-fatality rates reported for the general population. Blood Transfusion and Organ Transplant Risks Associated with Anaplasma species Because A. phagocytophilum infects the white blood cells and circulates in the blood stream, this pathogen may pose a risk to be transmitted through blood transfusions. Anaplasma phagocytophilum has been shown to survive for more than a week in refrigerated blood. Several cases of anaplasmosis have been reported associated with the transfusion of packed red blood cells donated from asymptomatic or acutely infected donors. Patients who develop anaplasmosis within a month of receiving a blood transfusion or solid organ transplant should be reported to state health officials for prompt investigation. Use of leukoreduced blood products may theoretically decrease the risk of transfusion-associated transmission of these pathogens. However, the filtration process does not remove all leukocytes or bacteria not associated with leukocytes from leukoreduced blood. Therefore, while this process may reduce the risk of transmission, it does not eliminate it completely. Physician Diagnosis There are several aspects of anaplasmosis that make it challenging for healthcare providers to diagnose and treat. The symptoms vary from patient to patient and can be difficult to distinguish from other diseases. Treatment is more likely to be effective if started early in the course of disease. Diagnostic tests based on the detection of antibodies will frequently appear negative in the first 7-10 days of illness. For this reason, healthcare providers must use their judgment to treat patients based on clinical suspicion alone. Healthcare providers may find important information in the patient’s history and physical examination that may aid clinical diagnosis. Information such as recent tick bites, exposure to areas where ticks are likely to be found, or history of recent travel to areas where anaplasmosis is endemic can be helpful in making the diagnosis. The healthcare provider should also look at routine blood tests, such as a complete blood cell count or a chemistry panel. Clues such as a low platelet count (thrombocytopenia), low white blood cell count (leukopenia), or elevated liver enzyme levels are helpful predictors of anaplasmosis, but may not be present in all patients. After a suspect diagnosis is made on clinical suspicion and treatment has begun, specialized laboratory testing should be used to confirm the diagnosis of anaplasmosis. Laboratory Detection During the acute phase of illness, a sample of whole blood can be tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to determine if a patient has anaplasmosis. This method is most sensitive in the first week of illness, and rapidly decreases in sensitivity following the administration of appropriate antibiotics. Although a positive PCR result is helpful, a negative result does not completely rule out the diagnosis, and treatment should not be with held due to a negative result. During the first week of illness a microscopic examination of blood smears (known as a peripheral blood smear) may reveal morulae (microcolonies of anaplasma) in the cytoplasm of white blood cells in up to 20% of patients. During A. phagocytophilum infection, morulae are most frequently observed in granulocytes. However, the observance of morulae in a particular cell type cannot conclusively identify the infecting species. Culture isolation of A. phagocytophilum is only available at specialized laboratories; routine hospital blood cultures cannot detect the organism. Figure 1: Morulae detected in a granulocyte on a peripheral blood smear, associated with A. phagocytophilum infection. When a person develops anaplasmosis, their immune system produces antibodies to A. phagocytophilum, with detectable antibody titers usually observed by 7-10 days after illness onset. It is important to note that a negative test during the first week of illness does not rule out anaplasmosis as a cause of illness. The gold standard serologic test for diagnosis of anaplasmosis is the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using A. phagocytophilum antigen, performed on paired serum samples to demonstrate a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titers. The first sample should be taken as early in the disease as possible, preferably in the first week of symptoms, and the second sample should be taken 2 to 4 weeks later. In most cases of anaplasmosis, the first IgG IFA titer is typically low, or “negative,” and the second typically shows a significant (four-fold) increase in IgG antibody levels. IgM antibodies usually rise at the same time as IgG near the end of the first week of illness and remain elevated for months or longer. Also, IgM antibodies are less specific than IgG antibodies and more likely to result in a false positive. For these reasons, physicians requesting IgM serologic titers should also request a concurrent IgG titer. Serologic tests based on enzyme immunoassay (EIA) technology are available from some commercial laboratories. However, EIA tests are qualitative rather than quantitative, meaning they only provide a positive/negative result, and are less useful to measure changes in antibody titers between paired specimens. Furthermore, some EIA assays rely on the evaluation of IgM antibody alone, which may have a higher frequency of false positive results. Antibodies to A. phagocytophilum may remain elevated for months or longer after the disease has resolved, or may be detected in persons who were previously exposed to antigenically related organisms. Between 5-10% of currently healthy people in some areas may have elevated antibody titers due to past exposure to A. phagocytophilum or similar organisms. Therefore, if only one sample is tested it can be difficult to interpret, while paired samples taken weeks apart demonstrating a significant (four-fold) rise in antibody titer provides the best evidence for a correct diagnosis of anaplasmosis. For more in-depth information about the diagnosis of anaplasmosis, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Treatment Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages and should be initiated immediately whenever anaplasmosis is suspected. Use of antibiotics other than doxycycline or other tetracyclines has been associated with a higher risk of fatal outcome for some rickettsial infections. Doxycycline is most effective at preventing severe complications from developing if it is started early in the course of disease. Therefore, treatment must be based on clinical suspicion alone and should always begin before laboratory results return. If the patient is treated within the first 5 days of the disease, fever generally subsides within 24-72 hours. In fact, failure to respond to doxycycline suggests that the patient’s condition might not be due to anaplasmosis. Severely ill patients may require longer periods before their fever resolves. Resistance to doxcycline or relapses in symptoms after the completion of the recommended course have not been documented. Recommended Dosage Doxycycline is the first line treatment for adults and children of all ages: - Adults: 100 mg every 12 hours - Children under 45 kg (100 lbs): 2.2 mg/kg body weight given twice a day Patients should be treated for at least 3 days after the fever subsides and until there is evidence of clinical improvement. Standard duration of treatment is 7 to 14 days. Some patients may continue to experience headache, weakness and malaise for weeks after adequate treatment. Treating children The use of doxycycline to treat suspected anaplasmosis in children is standard practice recommended by both CDC and the AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases. Unlike older generations of tetracyclines, the recommended dose and duration of medication needed to treat anaplasmosis has not been shown to cause staining of permanent teeth, even when five courses are given before the age of eight. Healthcare providers should use doxycycline as the first-line treatment for suspected anaplasmosis in patients of all ages. Other Treatments In cases of life threatening allergies to doxycycline and in some pregnant patients for whom the clinical course of anaplasmosis appears mild, physicians may need to consider alternate antibiotics. Although recommended as a second-line therapeutic alternative to treat Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever , chloramphenicol is not recommended for the treatment of anaplasmosis, as studies have shown a lack of efficacy. Rifampin has been used successfully in several pregnant women with anaplasmosis, and studies suggest that this drug appears effective against Anaplasma species. However, rifampin is not effective in treating RMSF, a disease that may be confused with anaplasmosis. Healthcare providers should be cautious when exploring treatments other than doxycycline, which is highly effective in treating both. Other antibiotics, including broad spectrum antibiotics are not considered highly effective against A. phagocytophilum, and the use of sulfa drugs during acute illness may worsen the severity of infection. Prophylaxis (Preventive Treatment) Antibiotic treatment following a tick bite is not recommended as a means to prevent anaplasmosis. There is no evidence this practice is effective, and this may simply delay onset of disease. Instead, persons who experience a tick bite should be alert for symptoms suggestive of tickborne illness and consult a physician if fever, rash, or other symptoms of concern develop. For more in-depth information about treatment, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm Other Considerations The clinical presentation for anaplasmosis can resemble other tickborne diseases, such as Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever and ehrlichiosis. Similar to anaplasmosis, these infections respond well to treatment with doxycycline. Healthcare providers should order diagnostic tests for additional agents if the clinical history and geographic association warrant. For more in-depth about other similar tickborne diseases, please visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5504a1.htm .